Elena's Legacy. Texts written by Elena, excerpts from texts she liked, her artworks.: January 2018

Tuesday, January 30, 2018

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

Today, most mental illnesses are treated with medication, antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, etc. However, aside from pharmacotherapy, other therapies such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). ACT may be used for a variety of mental illnesses, including schizophrenia. The goal of ACT is to recognize and accept unwanted experiences rather than trying to change them. For example, schizophrenia is characterized by delusions and hallucinations, such as hearing voices. ACT states that one needs to accept the fact that one hears these anxiety provoking voices, and instead must act on one’s personal values. The process may also be described as mindfulness.

Understanding one’s own values is critical for ACT. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Thus, ACT has as its core a shift of attention from the disruptive experiences one cannot control, towards goals and values one wants to pursue and attain. A popular metaphor in ACT is that of a bus driver. A patient is asked to imagine he or she is driving a bus. On the bus, there are several rough, tough and noisy passengers who keep threatening, harassing and yelling at the driver. They also attempt to make the driver change direction. A lot of them are on the bus and it is very hard to ignore them. The patient is made aware that one of the only ways he or she could stop the harassment is to throw them off the bus, which would be hard to do because they are stronger, and because the bus needs to be stopped in order for that to happen. Therefore, by stopping the bus the driver gives up control instead of gaining it. The healthier choice would be to focus on the direction of the bus the driver wants to follow.

Most therapies have their limitations. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

While certainly an efficient therapy in some cases, ACT has its limitations. For instance, many believe that the bus driver model is too passive. Some maintain that instead of ignoring the voices, it may be more beneficial to confront them, but in a caring, accepting and compassionate manner.

Charisma

By demonstrating exceptional self-belief, charm and grace through leadership, some people can develop admiration and loyalty in others, known as charisma. It is a the power of a people-centered approach in achieving results. In the Ancient history, Julius Caesar had a unique charisma as a leader and he used his charismatic leadership skills to develop one of the greatest hand-to-hand fighting forces ever known, and Caesar changed the course of history by bringing about the end of the Roman Republic. Surely, he was assassinated at the age of fifty-fife, but through a unique charismatic leadership developed a prestige that has lived on for two millennia.

“You must be the change you wish to see in the world” (Mahatma Gandhi). Illustration: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Tips to improve your charisma and assure your charismatic Leadership:

Make every individual feel highly valued
Demonstrate absolute belief in your vision
Make sacrifices for the values and ambitions of your vision
Use body language to support your verbal communication
Make your group feel secure and superior to others

A charismatic leader inspires other people with responsibility and ownership, rather than controlling them and discipline. If you a good leader, you’ll be able to create engaged teams who want to work for you, who will be able to fulfill themselves professionally and aspire to work to the best of their abilities. The end result of such a leadership will be achievement of all your shared ambitions.

Psychology of Human Motivation

Motivation is a very important topic in psychology and in the world at large, simply because most of what happens in the world is somehow related to motivation, albeit not all. So what are the motivational factors driving a person to run a marathon, to finish a book or to exercise on a daily basis. Human motivation psychologists have described several factors. For example, the sense of personal mastery, and internal versus external locus of control. Individuals with higher internal locus of control seem to be more motivated as a general rule.

Perhaps such phenomena are easier to understand from a contrasting viewpoint, or learned helplessness. Indeed, decades ago, well before powerful ethics’ committees revised psychological studies carefully, a series of experiments were carried out on dogs. The experiments which showed that continuous maltreatment of dogs led the canines to simply give up and not even try to fight the situation anymore. The aspect of the dogs’ behaviour have been deemed learned helplessness. Conversely, internal locus of control is the belief that one can and will influence one’s environment and outcomes if one puts effort into it.

What can motivate us to live? Photo by Elena

Motivation is loosely defined as the desire and drive to achieve one’s goals and pursue one’s aspirations. People often complain of not having enough motivation to complete the tasks they set themselves to do, such as running on the treadmill for half an hour, or go running and jogging around the house in the morning. Indeed, keeping fit is promoted by an active lifestyle, many aspects of which require motivation. In general, achievement in sport requires motivation, willpower and staying committed to a particular plan of action.

Thus, some strategies to remain motivated include, but are not limited to: making a commitment, keeping a record, visualizing the positive aspects, taking one step at a time, social support and setting realistic goals and expectations. Further, psychologists say that making a plan and sharing it with at least one other person may contribute to sticking with that plan. The proven trick of making to do lists seems to work as well. Writing a to do list on a calendar or a daily planner and checking off things as you complete them may help. Indeed, psychology of human motivation predicts that goals which are measurable are more motivational.

Moreover, psychological science also distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. A study showed that extrinsic motivation can actually impair intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to a situation when someone engages in an activity out of desire to participate in the activity itself. Conversely, extrinsic motivation corresponds to an external motivator such as a reward. In the study, researchers started to pay students for tasks the students enjoyed doing. After a while, it seemed that the students no longer wished to partake in the activities they once enjoyed unless they were being paid. One possible conclusion was that the activity had lost its intrinsic interest to the students, who now only valued what they could get for it.

Nonetheless, self-help books often recommend rewarding yourself after doing something you set yourself to do. Another motivational strategy includes social support and thinking about all the positive benefits derived from completing the task, such as a personal feeling of achievement or health benefits. A good suggestion in keeping realistic goals is to understand and expect that some things may feel difficult. Also, tasks appear more manageable and easier to do when done in small steps. Getting started is key to success! Finally, trying an activity at least five times before quitting is a good way of giving it a fair chance.

The Problem with Psychology

As many undergraduate students point out, psychology is a very interesting subject. In fact, psychology is among the most popular majors chosen at colleges and universities. However, there are several problems with the way that psychologists obtain data that is later taught in introductory and even higher level courses in the discipline. The study of psychology depends in large part on research studies. As many who have taken research methods or quantitative methods courses know, random sampling is crucial in ensuring that results can be generalized to the general population. Notwithstanding, most psychological research is done with psychology students, often in exchange for course credit (or percentage points towards the final course grade).

What is life? What is our nature? Photo by Elena

Thus, the samples used in psychological research are often far from being random and are consequently difficult to apply to the general population. The problem has often been described in the academic literature. Furthermore, in one particular study consisting of three parts, the behavioural scientists found that even among students, those who choose to participate in studies differ significantly from those who do not. As such, there are three different orientations described in the peer-reviewed article: prosocial, individualist and competitor. Naturally, prosocials are more oriented to help others and act altruistically. Alternatively, individualists are more concerned with self-interest or “what’s in it for them”. Finally, competitors focus on the difference of outcomes between their own performance and that of others.

The study (conducted by Van Lange et al., 2010) shows that students exhibiting prosocial orientation were more likely to participate in research than the other two groups. The researchers further theorized that students with a prosocial orientation were perhaps more likely to choose psychology as a major in the first place, given the opportunity in the field to help people. Indeed, psychologists often help people in the clinical and other settings. Therefore, the problem arises as to generalizing the findings of psychological research to the general population. Perhaps, the wisdom gained shows human nature in a skewed way, mostly applicable to undergraduate psychology students with a prosocial orientation and is thus inadmissible evidence to the population at large.

Reference:

Van Lange, P. A. M. et al. (2010). Who volunteers in our experiments? An empirical view of prosocial motivation in volunteering. Personality and Individual Differences.

Monday, January 29, 2018

Neurogenetics and Perception

The purpose of the present essay is a brief discussion of neurogenetics and sensation, perception and interpretation of sensory stimuli by the brain. Neurogenetics is a field that studies the genetics of the nervous system, and how genes might explain differences in genotypes, and resulting expressed phenotypes, in individuals. Naturally, the discipline draws on both genetics (the science of genes and related subjects) and neuroscience (the study of the nervous system).

Humans have colour vision. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Other interesting subjects are the steps of sensation, perception and interpretation of the five senses. Of most interest would be vision and audition. For instance, there are parallels between seeing and hearing. Photoreceptors react to light wavelengths and are located in the retina, the lining at the back of the eye. Two types of these sensory receptors exist: rods and cones. Rods are located on the periphery and are better suited to night vision. Alternatively, cones are concentrated on the fovea (full Latin name fovea centralis), possess better acuity and can discern colours. Due to lack of receptors at the location where the optic nerve leaves the eye, a blind spot is formed, where no vision occurs.

Different wavelengths correspond to different colours. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Further, in audition, there are likewise two types of receptors, or stereocilia: the inner and outer hair cells. The auditory receptors reside in the organ of Corti, and are thus sometimes called Corti’s cells. Signals thus obtained are similarly transmitted to the brain via a nerve bundle, namely the auditory nerve, auditory receptors are also vestibular. Finally, from there, the transduced energy is taken to the occipital lobe for vision, and the temporal lobe for hearing.

Positive Psychology

I tried to look at the bright side of life, but it hurt my eyes - Grumpy Cat (feline Internet sensation)

Optimist: I see a light at the end of the tunnel!

Pessimist: I see a freight train!

Realist: I see two dummies sitting on the rail tracks!

Quoth the Raven: "Nevermore!" - Edgar Allan Poe

Attachment and Attraction

Jokes aside, a famous psychological study found that individuals with depression actually had a more realistic perspective on life, the glass being indeed half empty, at least in that particular experiment carried out by the researchers. Psychology is a social science and thus relies mostly on studies. Unlike physics or other ‘hard’ sciences, psychology cannot always be quantified using laboratory experiments and thus turns to naturalistic observation and social experiments to predict, describe and explain (goals of science).

Positive Psychology Must Prevail. Photo by Elena.

Psychology has many branches, and two very opposite disciplines may be juxtaposed in the likes of positive psychology and abnormal psychology, mostly because abnormal psychology looks at disorders negatively impacting human lives, while positive psychology seeks to concentrate on the brighter side of life. To illustrate, Major Depressive Disorder, commonly known simply as depression to the general population, translates into a persistent state of low mood levels. Everyone gets the blues and it appears normal, particularly in reaction to a traumatic event, but in individuals with depression, the symptoms persist for more than two weeks, and include (list non-exhaustive):

sudden weight loss or gain
altered sleep patterns
suicidal or dark thoughts
loss of motivation
social withdrawal
loss of interest in any (and often all) activities once enjoyed

Internal, as opposed to external locus of control, has often been cited a a predictor of lifelong success, self-confidence and as a sort of protection against depressed mood. Internal locus of control is the belief that one influences the world and events in it (to a rational degree, not like ideas of reference in schizophrenia!), while external locus of control may be compared to fatalism. In addition, learned helplessness may be viewed as an extreme of this continuum, believing that no matter what one does, the effect will be the same. A word of caution, however. One of the definitions (non-scientific) of insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results, so while persistence and positive thinking may be helpful at times, at other times changing strategy or giving up altogether may be the wise choice to make. Sometimes, it is just not meant to be, and one must accept reality as it is.

For the person suffering from depression, feelings of desolation, despair, loneliness and losing interest in everything, are common symptoms. Fatal in severe and extreme cases terminating in suicide, even mild clinical depression is a fairly serious and debilitating illness and demands professional attention.

The importance of faith and religion has often been portrayed in mostly non-academic literature, scholarly documents focusing mostly on science alone. Notwithstanding, negative thinking may preclude one from even hoping for, or believing in, anything, altogether. Again, this is one extreme, the other extreme being magical thinking, believing everything will go exactly as planned and as one wishes, simply because one wishes it so, which can translate into delusional thinking (delusions are a symptom of mental illness). Delusions are characterized by persistent belief in something which is clearly false, despite all other evidence to the contrary. Additionally, while it is normal for a child to believe in fairy-tales, it strikes others as odd when adults still hold the same mentality.

From a therapist’s perspective, it may not always be easy to cheer up a person with depression, especially if they themselves hold a cynical view of the world; humanity, after all, has a lot of flaws. For example, Stanley Milgram conducted studies about obedience to authority. The experiments focused on blind obedience to authority and the experimenters rationalized the shocking results (omitted from the present discussion) using the belief that nothing really bad could happen in an experiment. Another study showing a rather dark side of humanity, were Zimbardo’s prison experiments. Power corrupts – and absolute power corrupts absolutely. The famous quote, while debated, may be used to discuss Zimbardo’s prison simulation experiments, a psychological study turned so sour and dangerous, that it had to be interrupted for subjects’ safety sake. A movie based on the story portrays the events pretty accurately.

Psychological studies have shown that religious people tend to be happier. However, as usually is the case with correlations, it remains unclear whether religion makes people happier, or whether happier people tend to be more religious. Also, it may be that attending mass and being church (and therefore often community) oriented, leads one to an altogether healthier and more positive lifestyle, than, say, consistently hanging out at the local bar (not that the two are mutually exclusive).

Positive psychology dictates that how people view things significantly impacts their life outcomes. A similar point was brought in the somewhat esoteric book, and derivative movie, The Secret. The authors claimed that the ‘Law of Attraction’ acted almost like a genie (a magic creature granting wishes) and could warrant anyone anything she or he wanted, provided they thought about it in a certain way. While if understood simplistically, the tale seems a dangerous and misleading one, there is certainly some truth in that extreme negativity rarely helps matters.

Attraction versus rejection. Body language can convey a lot of messages, although these are often misinterpreted. For instance, a person with arms closed is said to be unresponsive to whatever is being proposed or discussed, but at the same time, that individual may simply be cold.

Aside from positive psychology, other psychological fields, such as social as well as developmental psychology, look at the interaction between one’s emotions and disposition, and occupational, academic and romantic success. For example, theorists Erik Eriksson and Mary Ainsworth both believed that the amount of trust a person feels towards initially their primary caretakers, and then generally those surrounding them, influences the quality not only of their relationships, but of their lives in as a whole.

Where is PETA when you need them? Most cats dislike being dressed up, especially with something around their necks. Obviously, those who did this to the cat pictured above could not care less. Repeated abuse or prolonged unpleasant situations may eventually lead to feline depression. Image: Copyright © Megan Jorgensen.

Popular Psychology

The pop psychology phenomenon refers to the popular interpretation anddemonstrations of the social science that studies the mind and behavior. In recent years, the practice has gained increasing popularity with relatedtelevision shows, such as Lie to Me orDr. Phil. While the methods do resemble, psychologists and pseudopsychologists do use surveysand other questionnaires, the scientific methodology is rigorously respected only inthe former. College and university students majoring in psychology often hear that the behavioral science is anomnipresent part of human life, day-to-day existence and operations, sincemost of us solve psychological dilemmas on a daily basis (e.g. how to let acoworker know they have a stain on their lower back, how to courteously let anemployee know that they ought to produce better work or how to humanely end anunpleasant relationship)…

Sound of silence. Subtle changes. Image: © Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Nonetheless, social scientists, researchers and experimenters have to follow explicitlyoutlined methodology, which remains ensured by a qualified peer review process. Without permissions granted by this commission and ethics committees, scholarlyauthors fail to be published. Still, other professionals deplore the flaws ofthe review mechanism, stating that within a narrow area of research, all tend toknow each other, and thus less than a hundred percent accuracy andobjectivity appear as a likely outcome. Objectivity (a disinterested, non subjective approach), reliability (dependability),generalizability (applicability to the general population), replicability(international colleagues must be able to replicate the findingsobtained) and validity (whether a test or experiment measures what it wasdesigned to measure) are among the most important qualities or criteria inresearch methods.

Black Creek Pioneer Village IV

The Black Creek Pioner Village, Part IV

The pioneer village consists of over forty 19th century buildings, decorated in the style of the 1860s with period furnishings. These rooms tell the story of first settlers. The interiors show the pleasing proportions of the Ontario classic style.

Located in the Visitor's Centre, the Black Creek Shop features a wide selection of historical books, souvenirs, handcrafted reproductions of 19th century household items such as lanterns, slate boards (the first computer ) and slate pencils, historical maps and newspapers of the period along with historic communities book series for ages 6 to 14.The Gift Shop also offers light snacks, beverages, and candies.The gift shop accepts Visa, MasterCard , Amex, and debit card.

And this old village brings on many thoughts.

(All the pictures have been taken by Elena).

To deny pain after a loss is to hold on it.

Only be experiencing the pain - to go through it, to feel it, to express it and speak about it - can we truly learn from it and be set free to move on.

We cannot avoid the hurt. We must learn to cope with and move into the pain.

Yearning... In the weeks and months following the death of a person you love, no matter what you were doing, you would find your mind wandering.

You may dine, but the person who you love and who left you will be in your thoughts constantly.

After a loss, you are emotionally and physically vulnerable, so it is strongly advisable to have a physical check-up by your doctor. (Doctor's House built circa 1830. Original Location: Chinquacousy (Brampton), Ontario. The verandah with its curved copper roof is a welcome entrance to this timber frame home with wood sheathing and stucco finish).

Your doctor will ensure your symptoms are not caused by a specific medical ailment. (The Doctor house was originally a farm house designed to accommodate two generations of the family at once).

Saying such symptoms may be normal does not lessen the fact that they may require attention. (Doctor's reception room: With two front doors, completely separate upstairs and doors to close off each wing, two families could live separately in the same home).

The death of someone we love can be one of the most agonizing experiences of life. (Doctor's reception room: This design made the house ideal for the village doctor. With one section of the house used as living quarters, the other section served as the doctor's office and waiting room).

After somebody dies, you experience many confusing and conflicting emotions. You are hurting. In fact, during that difficult time, everything seems to hurt. (Picture: Dominion Carriage Works).

Very few people enjoy pain. Most of us do everything possible to avoid it. And when we lose someone we have counted on for, we lose the confidence to face the world. We find ourselves struggling to cope with many unexpected and surprising emotions.

If we have a physical pain, we take a pill to try to get rid of it. And with the loss of a person we love, we can do nothing. Edgely Slaughter House, built circa 1860 Original Location: Edgely, Ontario (Jane Street and Hwy #7).

Ten Common Myths About Mental Illnesses

Mental illnesses affect everyone in some way. We all likely know someone who has experienced a mental illness at some point. Yet there are still many hurtful attitudes around mental illnesses that fuel stigma and discrimination. They make it harder to reach out for help. It`s time to look at the facts.

Many myths exclude people with mental issues from our communities and create barriers to well-being. If we want to reduce the impact of mental illnesses on our communities, we need to learn the facts and start with our own assumptions and behaviour.

Here are some of the most common myths about mental illnesses:

Myth 1: Mental illnesses are not real illnesses.

Facts: The words we use to describe mental illnesses have changed greatly over time. What hasn`t changed is the fact that mental illnesses are not the regulars ups and downs of life. Mental illnesses create distress, don’t go away on their own, and are real health problems with effective treatments. When someone breaks their arm, we wouldn`t expect them to “just get over it”. Nor would be blame them if they needed a cast, sling, or other help in their daily life while they recovered.

Many myths about mental illness exist. Photo by Elena

Myth 2: People don`t recover from mental illnesses.

Facts: People can and do recover from mental illnesses. Today there are many different kinds of treatments, supports and services that could help. No one should expect to feel unwell forever. The fact is people who experience can and do lead productive, engaged lives. They work, volunteer and contribute their unique skills and abilities to their communities. Even when people experience mental illnesses that last for a long time they can learn how to manage their symptoms so they can get back to their goals. If someone continues to experience many challenges, it may be a sign that different approaches or supports are needed.

Myth 3: Mental illnesses will never affect me.

Facts: All of us will be affected by mental illnesses. Researchers estimate that as many as one in five Canadians will experience a mental illness at some point in their lives. You may not experience a mental illness yourself, but it`s very likely that a family member, friend or co-worker will experience challenges.

Myth 4: Mental illnesses are just an excuse for poor behaviour.

Facts: It`s true that some people who experience mental illnesses may act in ways that are unexpected or seem strange to others. We need to remember that the illness, not the person, is behind these behaviours. No one chooses to experience a mental illness. People who experience a change in their behaviour due to a mental illness may feel extremely embarrassed or ashamed around others. It`s also true that people with a history of a mental illness are like anyone else: they may make poor choices or do something unexpected for reasons unrelated to symptoms of their illness.

Myth 5: Bad parenting causes mental illness.

Facts: No one factor can cause mental illnesses. Mental illnesses are complicated conditions that arise from a combination of genetics, biology, environment, and life experiences. Family members and loved ones do have a big role in support and recovery.

Myth 6: People with mental illnesses are dangerous and violent.

Facts: Some people try to predict violence, so they know what to avoid. However, the causes of violence are complicated. Researchers agree that mental illnesses are not a good predictor of violence. In fact, if we look at mental illnesses on their own, people who experience a mental illness are no more violent than people without a mental illness. Excluding people from communities is linked to violence. And people with mental illnesses are often among those who are excluded. It`s also important to note that people who experience mental illnesses are much more likely to be victims of violence than to be violent.

Myth 7: People who experience mental illnesses are weak and can`t handle stress.

Facts: Stress impacts well-being, but this is true for everyone. People who experience mental illnesses may actually be better at managing stress than people who haven`t experienced mental illnesses. Many people who experience mental illnesses learn skills like stress management and problem-solving so they can take care of stress before it affects their well-being. Taking care of yourself and asking for help when you need it are signs of strength, not weakness.

Myth 8: People who experience mental illnesses can`t work.

Facts : Whether you realize it or not, workplaces are filled with people who have experienced mental illnesses. Mental illnesses don`t mean that someone is no longer capable of working. Some people benefit from changes at work to support their goals, but many people work with few supports from their employer. Most people who experience serious mental illnesses want to work but face systemic barriers to finding and keeping meaningful employment.

Myth 9: Kids can`t have a mental illness like depression. Those are adult problems.

Facts: Even children can experience mental illnesses. In fact, many mental illnesses first appear when a person is young. Mental illnesses may look different in children than in adults, but they are a real concern. Mental illnesses can impact the way young people learn and build skills, which can lead to challenges in the future. Unfortunately, many children don`t receive the help they need.

Myth 10: Everyone gets depressed as they grow older. It’s just part of the aging process.

Facts: Depression is never an inevitable part of aging. Older adults may have a greater risk of depression because they experience so many changes in roles and social networks. If an older adult experiences depression, they need the same support as anyone else.

No one should expect to feel unwell for ever. People do recover from mental illnesses. Illustration: Clear Mind by Megan Jorgensen.

Love and Oxytocin

Love is all around us. However, not all the love we see is romantic love. Psychologists and other researchers alike try to elucidate romantic love. Why does it happen? Which are the neural correlates or neuronal substrates of romantic love? Neurohormones oxytocin and vasopressin have been implicated in the formation of long-term monogamous bonds. For example, see prairie and mountain voles.

Further, empathy is an important part of human relationships. Empathy is defined as the ability to feel or experience another’s internal states emphatically. In other words, it goes back to understanding the other person. Understanding, trust, communication and empathy all represent key ingredients in the formation of long-term relationships. However, how we react to others, and particularly how we interact with new lovers may be predicted by our genes.

Love is around us... Photo by Elena

For example, a genetic study showed the neurobiology of at least one emotional parameter: empathy. Thus, Schneiderman et al. (2013) argue that romantic relationships may be mediated by an oxytocin related gene. Furthermore, while conferring both advantages and disadvantages to psychological, and at times even physical health, it is difficult to overlook the importance romantic attachment plays in people’s lives. Most songs and movies have at least some component centering on love. Still, the researchers isolated a gene which may be responsible for quality of early stage relationships by mediating oxytocin.

Communication and trust have been countlessly cited as predictors of marital and relational satisfaction. Notwithstanding, communication is a diverse and complex subject altogether. To illustrate, much of communication is non-verbal. Facial expressions, tone of voice, body language and even the way we dress all convey a message. To make a long story short, in communication, a sender encodes and sends a message, which is then received and decoded by the receiver. Clearly, communication break-downs occur in many situations. Also, happy couples differ greatly in their communication patterns from unhappy ones. Needless to say, couples can always seek couple counselling to improve their communication styles.

IQ and the Brain

Intuitively, as evidenced by the saying “big brains”, there is a relation between brain morphology and intelligence, at least as measured by IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests. The better known such assessments are WAIS and WISC i.e. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults and Children, respectively.

Further, Alfred Binet was the first to have thought of such operationalization, and developed an initial test to facilitate children’s scholastic placement. Criticisms of intellectual quotient results have ranged from their correlations with SES (SocioEconomic Status), bias against certain groups, to failure to predict success and occasional overlook of traits that may qualify as intelligent. Also, IQ averages in the general population follow a normal distribution.

But what do neuroscientists have to say on the topic? The present short essay attempts to answer this question by first turning to Johnson et al. (2008). Thus, applying VBM (Voxel-Based Morphometry) and comparing brain gray and white matter volumes as related to numerical results, the researchers found robust correlations. Consequently, differences in brain structure may reflect variety in sharpness, suggesting neuroanatomical underpinnings as clarification, at least for non-mathematically assessed cognitive capacities. In addition, the authors insist that their data support a previously established model (Carroll, 1993) of cognitive abilities operating on both a general and a task specific basis.

By the same token, gray as well as white matter volumes have been linked to intelligence As a brief aside, gray matter consists of neural bodies called soma, whereas white matter encompasses cellular projections, called axons. Axons are myelinated (myelin is a fatty substance speeding transmission), which is why they result in lighter color.

Along these lines, while confirming the association between cerebral architecture and IQ, Li et al. (2008) went further to investigate specific relationships. So, they write that COMT va1158met (gene variant) acts on the association between brain white matter and IQ. Their findings support the notion that COMT val158met influences quick wittiness. Hence, the work adds to the body of knowledge linking genetics to intellect dissimilarities in the general population.

Finally, regardless of how persistent are rankings of IQ scores (they do increase in most individuals overtime, but retain proportion) and high accuracy in scholastic achievement foreshadowing, other measures have been proposed as alternatives. One such illustration is EQ or Emotional Quotient.

References:

Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, W., Jung, R. E., Colom, R. and Haier, R. J. (2008). Cognitive abilities independent of IQ correlate with regional brain structure. Intelligence, 36: 18-28.
Li, J., Yu, C., Li, Y., Liu, B., Liu, Y., Shu, N., Song, M., Zhou, Y., Zhu, W., Li, K. and Jiang, T. (2008). COMT Val158Met modulates association between brain white matter architecture and IQ. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, Part B, 150B: 375-80.

Cogito ergo sum is Latin for: I think, therefore I am… The phrase was coined by mathematician Rene Descartes… Illustration : Megan Jorgensen.

Interpersonal Attraction

Psychologists, especially social psychologists, have long pondered the question of attraction and relationships. Sure, there have been theories on attachment and trust (Mary Ainsworth and Erik Eriksson, respectively), beauty standards (WHR – waist to hip ratio, complexion, gender differences), but what is it that attracts human beings to one another?

Is this picture not of the most beautiful woman in the world? Angelina Jolie, Aishwarya Rai and Megan Fox have all been designated as the most gorgeous women in the world at some point. Coincidentally, all three actresses have dark hair and light eyes. Regardless, ladies with dissimilar looks, such as Claudia Schiffer, Monica Belucci, Kim Tae-hee, Halle Berry and Lindsay Lohan (who often changed hairdos and appeared to wear contact lenses) have similarly been named as world’s beauty queens. One saying comes to mind: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Despite this, physical attraction has been cited as a factor in choosing partners, friends and, ironically enough, even in determining an expert’s credibility. Image: Copyright © Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

To answer the question, researchers have as usual turned to scientific methodology. Thus, conducting several studies, they have found that at least in the realm of friendship bond formation, liking depended on proximity. The result was documented in a study were students became friends with those living closest to them in dormitories (college dorms). Also, the literature is full of examples suggesting that friendships are more likely to spring from similarity in interests, background, values and intelligence. Who knows, maybe opposites fail to attract after all…

But, what about romantic bonds? Does the association stand? According to research, it seems so. Marriages are said to often bring together individuals of, likewise, the same backgrounds, the same education and the same age.

Still, psychology may not apply to every single romance or friend group or pair out there, but there seems to be a consensus that people tend to like those who like them. A further question is raised by such a statement, why then do so many believe that it is wise to play hard to get?

Intelligence – Neural Correlates

By Dr. Megan Jorgensen

Intelligence is a significantly broad topic, and can thus be approached from different angles. On the one hand, Lefebvre (2011) maintains that innovation constitutes an ecological measure of intelligence in the wild. Along these lines, behavioral flexibility would allow animals to cope with their environments. However, the author also proposes that cognition should be viewed in general terms, rather than in modular, despite some components definitely being domain-specific. Interestingly, tool use may correlate with brain size. For example the New Caledonian crow, the non-human most apt at using tools, has a proportionately larger brain than its avian close relatives.

On the other hand, Geake (2011) centers on educational neuroscience and proclaims, “our brains did not evolve to go to school” (44). Interestingly, the researcher suggests that analogy making is central to acumen. Although the author introduces a distinction, since in creative thinking, fluid analogizing takes center stage. Therefore, more than one right answer is possible. Further, the experimenter found a correlation between the process and verbal IQ. IQ scores, despite being disputed as an absolute representation of sharpness, are a good predictor of academic performance. Again, the writer stresses that several brain areas are involved in higher cognitive processes, even though the frontal and parietal lobes have consistently been implicated. Further, Brodmann areas have similarly been indicated in the literature as candidates for explaining differences in astuteness between persons (Deary et al., 2010).

Finally, one must also keep in mind that the capability may be subdivided into several components, such as vocabulary, processing speed, memory, spatial ability and reasoning. However, general intelligence or ‘g’, means that those who perform well in one domain usually perform well across the board. Such a situation renders difficult defining neural correlates of intelligence, since even on domain specific tasks, level of g is important; g may compensate for any lack of ability – consequently – it’s hard to separate the parts from the whole.

To conclude, the idea that intelligence is highly heritable (genetically programmed) started with Galton’s paper in the 19th century. Also, national IQs have risen over time, at least in Western societies in the 20th century, a phenomenon dubbed the Flynn effect. Lastly, another significant theory on the topic (Multiple Intelligences) comes from Gardner, but lies outside the scope of the present short essay.

References:

Deary, I. J., Penke, L. & Johnson, W. (2010). The neuroscience of human intelligence differences. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 11: 201-11.
Geake, J. (2011). Position statement on motivations, methodologies, and practical implications of educational neuroscience research: FMRI studies of the neural correlates of creative intelligence. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 43 (1): 43-7.
Lefebvre, L. (2011). Opinion piece: Taxonomic counts of cognition in the wild. Biology Letters: Animal Behaviour, 7: 631-3.

Psychology Essay: Gothic Psychology

The purpose of the present essay is to relate Gothic art and Gothicism to psychology. Theoretically, Gothic art, literature and ritualistic appearance may be linked to many psychological elements, such as romance, despair and helplessness. By the way, learned helplessness refers to a mechanism in psychology that describes an individual so hopeless as to give up entirely, since none of that individual’s efforts are likely to influence the outcome in any efficient matter. Researchers first established the effect in a laboratory experiment.

Neuroscience has seldom examined Gothic subjects directly, although the close field of psychology certainly has. Various writers describe the behavioural science emanating from Gothic literary works (novels published in the late 1700s and 1800s) as influenced by societal and political issues, such as social status inequalities. Psychological undercurrents of the Goth subculture tradition have also been discussed at large in the literature. The image below relates to a variant of Gothic and Goth expressive fashion:

Goth Couple Dancing Ballet. Dance schools and academies across the world teach samba, cumbia, rumba, merengue, bachata, reggae, lambada, waltz, foxtrot, quickstep, cha-cha-cha, tango and other ballroom dances and, yet, ballet remains unmatched. Further, ballerinas are also associated to music through decorative doll uses on jewelry cases. Gothic ballet. Image: Image: © Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

Festivals are held worldwide in Germany and Russia, among other places, for Goth music, youth culture and style. Apparel can be found in many specialized stores, as well as medieval and Victorian era shops, and those of an erotic nature.

Psychologists have wondered about the motivation behind associated lifestyles, and certain theories suggest that a dark and somber outlook paradoxically helps to foster a sense of security in some people. Additionally, the customs intertwined with otherworldly forces may serve to create an illusion of power. A similar function may underlie the highly technologically advanced prosthetic eyes, and other high-tech replacements, in the Star Trek series’ and movies’ (science fiction) cybernetic alien race – the Borg (known for assimilating other civilizations they deemed worthy, and incorporating them into the hive mind or the Borg collective). In such drastic environments, the intrinsic human need to belong appears at odds with autonomy. Still, the shared knowledge at times came in handy even for those few who have successfully departed the Borg society, namely Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) and subsequently, Seven of Nine (Jeri Ryan). Hopefully, the present paper made a good contribution to the discussion of the interrelation of Gothic style to psychological theory.

How to Write A Successful Essay in Psychology

Psychology is a marvellous field with a lot to offer to the diligent student. However, even though it is a social science and not a hard and applied science as physics, it is still a difficult topic. Most undergraduate students in psychology find that there is a lot to read and to write. So, how to write a successful academic paper in psychology or in any other of the behavioural sciences?

Rogers Dome at night in Toronto city. Image: Elena

During my undergraduate years I found that the biggest problems when in came to essay is lack of time. Naturally, avoiding procrastination greatly helps in these endeavours. The shows on TV might be interesting and the outings offered by your new roommates might be even more tempting than a night in watching reruns of your favourite sitcom, but those papers aren’t going to write themselves, and those terms terms aren’t going to grade themselves either. And, you, assuming want the best grade you can possibly get.

Three girlfriends who just received an A grade on a psychology paper. Image: Elena

First of all, it is important to have a good atmosphere to write a paper. You must have a good desk, or whichever other space and furniture you choose to write your assignments on (or in, as in the case of a couch or a bed). Hey, no one said you must sit at a desk to write a successful essay, the important part is that you are comfortable. The next and probably most important element, is understanding the assignment. While it may seem trivial, a lot of students take it for granted just how crucial answering the questions outlined in the assignment handout actually is.

A psychology student who failed to hand in his or her term paper. Transformed into a gargoyle as a result. Image: Elena

Okay, so you got your assignment question, you decided on an essay topic, not too narrow so as to have enough information and research published on the subject, but not too broad either so that you can become somewhat of an expert on the issue you will be discussing in your paper. Obviously, it is imperative not to plagiarize. Any words and even ideas taken from other authors must be credited to the sources. Luckily, there exist manuals on the different referencing styles to avoid plagiarism.

The Saturn (Rain)

The Saturn

The Orpheus I spacecraft encountered the Saturn system and uncovered a host of wonders concerning the planet, its intricate ring system, its swarm of attendant satellites. Perhaps, most interesting of these was Titan, known to have an atmosphere rather like that of the primitive Earth, a dense haze layer composed of complex organic molecules, and perhaps a surface ocean of liquid hydrocarbons. A range of observations was made of rings of debris surrounding the Saturn.

These structures might be in the process of coagulating into new planetary systems, and suggest that planets might be overwhelmingly abundant among the stars of the Milky Was galaxy. In fact, life was found unexpectedly nibbling on sulfur compounds in very high temperature vents on the Earth’s ocean floor and many evidence has accumulated suggesting that comets are periodically sprayed into the inner solar system, triggering the extinction of many species on Earth.

Saturn. Image in public domain.

Great regions of intergalactic space have been uncovered that seemingly are depleted in galaxies. New and important components of the universe bearing on the question of its ultimate fate have been suggested.

(Extract from The Rain, the famous SF novel by Elena and George)

Social Chemistry and Friendship

Friendship is a subject viewed from many perspectives. Obviously, most people in this world have friends, and thus who do not, suffer the tragedy terribly more often than not. Then again, friendship, is not always linked to peers, sometimes people name as their best friends their parents or their siblings.

Further, one common feature among friends is understanding. Friends tend to understand us and also to accept us as we are, a commodity quite rare in the present world. Interestingly enough, psychologists would not leave a subject such as friendship undiscussed and especially social, psychologists have a lot to say about friendship. For example, social psychologists say that friendships are more often formed between people who live in proximity to one another, as well as who share similarities.

Do you want to be my friend? Image: Elena

Friends often also offer social support. Social support need not always be tangible; it could be just the feeling that someone is there. In fact, some social psychologists maintain that real best friends can spend years without talking to each other and still remain friends. Is it true? There as many answers as there are opinions.

Chemistry is another ball game altogether. Chemistry most often refers to the mutual feelings between relational or sexual partners. In the sense of relationships, it is often said that for a couple to stay strong throughout the years, they must be best friends before everything and anything. After all, even the most beautiful girl or handsome young man, have their looks fade with time in the majority of cases, so there has to be something more to keep the couple together, to keep the flame alive, to relentlessly rekindle the romance.

Some people say love is friendship on fire. Others say that you cannot have love, or more precisely a romantic relationship, without friendship. Yet, other, skeptic ones at that, fail to believe in either love or friendship. A sad perspective and an even sadder world if you ask us, but then again…

Neurohormones and Neurotransmitters

In neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, neurons, as well as neurotransmitters and neurohormones are often discussed. Both of these chemicals naturally produced by the body influence almost everything that undergoes in the organism. The aim of the present section is to outline the main facts known about these chemical messengers.

The main neurotransmitters in the brain are GABA, adrenaline or epinephrine, serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline or norepinephrine. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the predominant inhibitor (neurotranmitters can result in excitation or inhibition of nerby neurons once they are discharged into the synaptic cleft and before reuptake), while serotonin is responsible for mood, thermoregulation and has tryptophan (found in pasta and other comestibles) as its precursor. Dopamine is largely credited in the reward circuitry.

In biology, one is often told that most living organisms live to maintain homeostasis, or the status quo. Along these lines, quantities of neurontranmistters must be in balance for the body to function at its best. For example, too little dopamine may result in Parkinson’s disease (which is why the effects are counteracted with the medication L-Dopa, which constitutes synthetic dopamine). Conversely, too much dopamine may result in schizophrenia, some studies have found that individuals with the mental illness had more D2 receptors (dopamine has a total of 5 receptor types – D1, D2, D3, D4, D4=5). Likewise, a serotonic pathways dysfunction may be the leading cause of MDD (Major Depressive Disorder, commonly called depression). Logically, medications such as Prozac (brand name for fluoxetine) are part of the SSRI group, which prevents serotonin reuptake, resulting in more of the neurochemical in the brain, and thus, better mood.

To perceive light, several players take part in the process. First, the receptors (rods and cones, located on the retina – the back of the eye), the the optic nerve transmits the information to the thalamus (also called the brain’s relay station), and only then, the transduced energy makes it to the visual cortices located in the occipital lobe. Image: Copyright © Elena

The difference between neurotransmitters and neurohormones is that the latter are hormones produced by neurons, while the former, while also produced by brain cells, are not. Examples include oxytocin and gonatropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Oxytocin, together with vasopressin, has been demonstrated to influence bonding in relationships. Perhaps the most famous such case centers on the praririe vole, a mammal forming long-term relationships due to increased oxytocin and vasopressin release.

The problem of neurology is to understand man himself (Wilder Penfield). Photo : Megan Jorgensen.

GABA

GABA is short for gamma-aminobutyric acid, there are two predominant receptor types for this amino acid neurotransmitter: GABAA and GABAB (Enna & Mohler, 2007). GABA mutations affect reactivity to drugs and behavioral phenotype (the expression of the genotype, in turn the collection of polymorphisms inherited). GABA plays an important role in neural development and functionality of the central nervous system (CNS). The human nervous system is composed of the CNS and the PNS (peripheral nervous system).

The CNS contains the brain, the cerebellum and the spinal cord. The PNS encompasses all connective neural projections (the longest nerve fiber in the human body runs all the way from the spine to the big toe).

As highlighted by Kern & Ziemssen (2007), within the PNS, there is the autonomic or visceral nervous system (ANS), which consists of two parts the sympathetic and parasympathetic, and is primarily responsible for involuntary functions. The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for unconsciously performed actions such as breathing, thermoregulation, sleep and heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system is activated when the situation calls for a prompt decision, known as the fight-or-flight response, where as the name indicates, the organism must choose whether to confront the situation or escape from danger. Since its inception, the response has been extended to included the “or freeze” option. Neurons are brain cells that transmit information using neurochemicals. The neural body is called the soma, while its “tail” is called an axon; dendrites are cortical projections from the neuron’s cell body.

Gray matter comprises neural somata, while white matter is mostly axons (lighter because of myelin).

Myelin is a fatty substance and severe starvation depletes it, resulting in brain damage in extreme cases. Most axons are myelinated, which speeds up transduction of electrical current. In the cerebral cortex of mammals, neurotransmitters can have excitatory or inhibitory effects on neurons close to the synaptic cleft. The synapse if the space between neurons and the cleft is where the neurochemicals are discharged once a depolarized neuron “fires”. Depolarization occurs when sodium enters the cell, while potassium exits, due to membrane permeability, creating an action potential.

A cortical cell no longer polarized is ready to discharge; a refractory period refers to the time lapse during which it is impossible for a brain cell to be stimulated or fire. Thus, there are excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). Neural responses are usually recorded using surface electrodes. GABA is a major inhibitor in the human CNS (McCormick, 1989). GABA antagonists (agents such as picrotoxin, bicuculline and phaclofen that hinder GABA production) lead to convulsions. As introduced above, the GABAA receptors mediate the early onset IPSP, while the GABAB have to do with its late counterpart. GABA synthesis is dependent on alpha-decarboxylation of glutamate (Martin & Rimvall, 1993), although other GABA precursors have been documented (Yamasaki et al., 1999).

Sepkuty et al. (2002) examined what happened in rats with impaired GABA availability using antisense treatment (a molecular genetics techniques). Reduction of GABA, and consequently of inhibitory signals, led to limbic hyper-excitability and epilepsy (a condition characterized by [epileptic] seizures and profound stochastic neural over-activity).

References:

Enna, S. J. & Mohler, H. (2007). The GABA receptors (3rd ed.). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.
Kern, S. & Ziemssen, T. (2007). Review: Brain immune communication psychoneuroimmunology of multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 14 (1): 6-21.
Martin, D. L. & Rimvall, K. (1993). Regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid synthesis in the brain. Journal of Neurochemistry, 60 (2): 395-407.
McCormick, D. A. (1989). GABA as inhibitory neurotransmitter in human cerebral cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 62 (5): 1018-27.
Sepkuty, J. P., Cohen, A. S., Eccles, C., Rafiq, A., Behar, K., Ganel, R., Coulter, D. A. & Rothstein, J. D. (2002). A neuronal glutamate transporter contributes to neurotransmitter GABA synthesis and epilepsy. The Journal of Neuroscience, 22 (15): 6372-9.
Yamasaki, E. N., Barbosa, V. D., de Mello, F. G. & Hakoc, J. N. (1999). GABAergic system in the developing mammalian retina: Dual sources of GABA at early stages of postnatal development. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 17 (3): 201-13.