A Space Odyssey to Mars in 1986

A Space Odyssey to Mars in 1986

As seen in 1972

It is April 1986, one year since the giant spacecraft blasted out of the orbit around Earth and headed into deep space, propelled by powerful nuclear engines. The Earth is now so far away that it looks no bigger than a bright star. On board, the crew is too busy for sentimental homeward glances. In a few minutes, three astronauts will enter a smaller spacecraft and cast off from the mother ship to start the final lap of a momentous journey. Their little craft will carry the space travelers to man’s first landing on the surface of Mars.

Though the scenario has the ring of fiction, it could become fact – in the unlikely event that the US Congress has a change of heart and next year appropriates funds for a manned trip to Mars – a minimum of $30 billion to $40 billion, to be spent over a twelve-year period. If that approval were given, NASA’s dreamer planners would not be unprepared. They have already spelled out in detail a daring program that could land Americans on the Red Planet by the mid-1980s.

Mars, the Gothic. Illustration by Elena

The Mars expedition would make a twelve-day lunar landing mission like a Sunday excursion. If all could be in readiness by 1985, for example, the Mars astronauts would be blasted out of orbit on April 5, when the Earth, Venus and Mars will be in ideal positions for the mission. Their craft would swing by Venus on September 10, 1985, getting a valuable gravitational boost that would speed it to Mars by April 10, 1986. The expedition would depart from Mars on May 20 and arrive back in Earth orbit on November 15, 1986, 590 days after leaving.

The ambitious mission, as planned, will require two command ships, each carrying a crew of six. If one craft becomes disabled, the other can safely return all of the astronauts to Earth. Unlike lunar missions, the journey will not begin directly from Earth; that would require boosters too huge to be practical. Instead, the two cylindrical ships will be lofted piecemeal into earth orbit by Saturn type boosters. There, the separate parts will be latched together. Finally, a space shuttle will bring up the astronauts as well as their fuel and supplies.

Propulsion for the Mars craft will come from an engine not yet developed, perhaps the proposed NERVA (for Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications). It consists of a small nuclear reactor that heats liquid hydrogen until it is expelled as a jet of white-hot gas. To kick out of earth orbit, which requires much less thrust than the earth launch, the 270-feet-long ships will fire – and then discard – the two outboard NERVAs strapped to their sides’ the main booster, at the center of the engine cluster, will be retained. Then, as the two ships pull away from Earth orbit, they will be docked end to end to form a single unit within which the crews can pass back and forth through airlocks.

Some bottled oxygen will be taken along (so that it can be used, among other things, to repressurize the cabin in the event of a meteorite hit), but most of the oxygen will be produced by the electrolysis of water. Although the ships will also carry a supply of fresh water, a large portion of the water consumed by the astronauts will be produced by passing exhaled carbon dioxide through a reactor that separates oxygen from CO2 and combines it with hydrogen. Other water will come from recycled urine and wash water. Earlier plans to grow algae on board to supplement the food supply have now been shelved. “Algae cookies taste pretty horrible,” explains NASAs Robert Lohman. Instead, the food supply will consist largely of frozen and freeze-dried food.

To counteract the possibly damaging effects of weightlessness on such a long voyage, the joined spaceships will have a shielded compartment in which crew members can sit out dangerous barrages of radiation during solar storms. There will also be exercising facilities, games, a library and other diversions to while away the hours. One problem has not been resolved: what to do about the crew members’ sexual drives. NASA psychologists agree that pornography, which suffices as an escape mechanism for nuclear submarine crews on 60-days missions, may not be enough. With an all-male Mars crew, they believe, homosexual activity is inevitable. Including women in the crew poses other problems. As one psychologist puts it: “Sex will be more of a public relations problem than a medical problem for NASA.”

When the linked-up ships finally approach Mars, they will separate, fire their main engines to enter an orbit around the planet, and reunite. Before any manned landing takes place, the expedition will send down several small unmanned probes to scout landing sites and scoop up soil before returning to the mother ship.

When sites have been selected, three astronauts will descend in a lander which will contain a Mars rover, scientific gear and supplies for a month’s stay. The surface activities – televised up to the mother ship and relayed to Earth – will resemble the familiar rock gathering and experimenting of lunar exploration. The astronauts will wear oxygen packs to survive in the thin carbon dioxide atmosphere, and space suits to weather Martian temperatures, from 75 degrees F at the equator at noon, to – 180 degrees F in the Polar region. But there will be significant differences. Since Martian gravity is one third’s of the Earth’s (compared with the Moon one-sixth G), the astronauts will walk with a more normal gait. They may be buffeted by the high winds of Martian dust storms which often exceed hurricane force. They will also be on the lookout for things that do not exist on the Moon: water and primitive life forms.

During this stay, several expeditions will be sent to the surface. Finally, after 40 days in orbit, the twin ships will separate, fire their engines to boost them away from Mars, and redock for the long voyage home. After shipping back into Earth orbit 186 days later, the astronauts will transfer to a waiting space shuttle for the descent to Earth. Above them in orbit will be the empty Mars ships, awaiting the next crew of interplanetary travelers.

(Time, December 11, 1972)

Space Rescue and Safety

Space Rescue and Safety

Edited by Philip H. Bolger. 272 pages, hardcover, $20.00. American Astronautical Society (1975)

Potential space rescuers have been forced to watch helplessly as space crews perished or limped home from beyond the reach of direct Earth aid. A recent congress of the International Astronautical Federation was the setting for a special meeting of concerned would-be rescuers who discussed the difficult problems of space rescue in the age of the Space Shuttle. Someday the lives of endangered astronauts or cosmonauts may be saved by outside help, as in the science fiction movie “Marooned”. So far, however, it’s all talk – and this book reports on it all.

This collection of articles represents an enormous spectrum of interests. One gets the first impression that the meeting organizer really had to stretch the scope of the subsession in order to get enough papers submitted. They include engineering proposals, operational constraints, statistical summaries, historical analysis, bibliographical and related subject guides, and reports on present and planned systems.

Cosmos. Illustration by Elena

Two papers dal with emergency one-man “bailout” from orbit. A stranded spaceman must return to Earth without a spacecraft which has become disabled. Inflatable heat shield are proposed, while one engineer suggests a revolutionary (but entirely feasible) heat resistant parachute for return from orbit without any ablative heat shield at all.\Other authors discuss ways to prevent spacecraft failure: reliability, testing, and preflight verification. An interesting survey of spacecraft and engine structural failures (so far, all on the ground) sheds new light on engineering and management techniques which have made the United States space program so successful.

Another excellent section deals with rescue capabilities of the Space Shuttle, including crew training, spacesuits and airlocks. Passengers may be evacuated in pressurized “rescue pods” carried by space-suited astronauts or by the amazing mechanical arm which will be installed on the Shuttle. A “manned maneuvring unit” can provide mobility and carrying power during rescue. All these excellent plans, however, call for the availability of a second Space Shuttle to come to the aid of the disables sister ship. But the first production space plane may fly solo for more than 1- 1/2 years before the next one is ready for flight. Hence, no rescue option will be available during this interval.

But astronomers have lived with that risk, and have survived before. A historical in-depth analysis of the Skylab reliability and rescue programs gives perspective to the problem and reveals why the danger of a “solo” Space Shuttle is very low after all.

Two studies discuss the probability of collision of two orbiting satellites (low, but becoming significant as flights are longer, ships are bigger, and more junk is left in space) and the probability that a downed space crew at sea might be able to depend on world fishing fleets for emergency pickup. Both topics are interesting and important, though too long and somewhat tedious.

The overall level of these papers reflects the general survey nature of the conference; there is just not much deep technical information available. By the end of the book, though, what appeared to be a hodgepodge of disparate topics seems to merge into one “big picture” of space rescue, testifying to the real care with which the session was organized. Space rescue and safety is truly a multifaceted problem.

The result is a fascinating, wide-ranging and easy to read survey of a “life or death” subject.

No American astronaut has ever died in space, and none have died on duty in nearly a decade. The technology and plans described in this book will hopefully continue to trend for many years to come

James E. Oberg (August 1976)

Conflict of Civilizations

Conflict of Civilizations

If there are millions of civilizations distributed more or less randomly through the Galaxy, the distance to the nearest is about two hundred light-years. Even at the speed of light it would take two centuries for a radio message to get from there to here. If we had initiated the dialogue, it would be as if the question had been asked by Johannes Kepler and the answer received by us.

Especially because we, new to radio astronomy, must be comparatively backward, and the transmitting civilization advanced, it makes more sense for us to listen than to send. For a more advanced civilization, the positions are, of course, reversed.

We are at the earliest stages of our radio search for other civilizations in space. In an optical photograph of a dense star field, there are hundreds of thousands of stars. By our more optimistic estimates, one of them is the site of and advanced civilizations. But which one? Toward which stars should we point our radio telescopes? Of the millions of stars that may mark the location of advances civilizations, we have so far examined by radio no more than thousands.

Photo by Elena

We have made about one-tenth of one percent of the required effort. But a serious, rigorous, systematic search will come soon. The preparatory steps are now underway. It is comparatively inexpensive : the cost of a single naval vessel of intermediate size – a modern destroyer , say – would pay for a decade-long program in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

Benevolent encounters have not been the rule in human history, where transcultural contacts have been direct and physical, quite different from the receipt of a radio signal a contact as light as a kiss.

Still, it is instructive to examine one of two cases from our past, if only to calibrate our expectations : Between the times of the American and the French Revolutions, Louis XVI of France outfitted an expedition to the Pacific Ocean, a voyage with scientific, geographic, economic and nationalistic objectives. The commander was the Count of La Pérouse, a noted explorer who had fought for the United States in its War of Independence InJuly 1786, almost a year  after setting sail, he reached the coast of Alaska, a place now called Liuya Bay. He was delighted with the harbor and wrote: “Not a port in the universe could afford more conveniences.” In this exemplary location, La Pérouse perceived some savages, who made signs of friendships, by displaying and waving white mantles, and different skins. Several of the canoes of these Indians were fishing in the Bay… we were continually surrounded by the canoes of the savages, who offered us fish, skins of otters and other animals, and different little articles of their dress in exchange for our iron. To our great surprise, they appeared well accustomed to traffic, and bargained with us with as much skill as any tradesman of Europe.”

Meade Research Quality Telescope

Meade Research Quality Telescopes, Parts and Accessories

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Wide Field Eyepieces. Kellner 40mm Extra Wide Field (1 ¼ O.D.). Yields widest field obtainable in 1 ¼” O.D. Enlarged field liens and special field-flattening optics with long eye relief. Barrel accepts filters directly.

Photo: Elena

Erfle 20 mm (1 1/4” O.D.). An advanced 5-element system with fully coated, color corrected optics. Fine image quality throughout a wide 65” field. Barrel threaded for our filters. Illuminated Reticle Eyepiece. A professionally made Kellner 12 mm guiding eyepiece for the most discriminating applications. Precisely focusable crossline reticle; remote brightness control with 2 ft cord. Specify either 1 ¼” or 0.965” O.D. Micrometer Reticle. For accurate measurement of stellar and planetary separations. Interchanges with standard crossline reticle.

Photo-visual color filters. Top quality optical glass, dyed-in-the-mass, with excellent spectral homogeneity. Mounted in machine metal cells which thread directly into all our 1 ¼” Series 1” eyepieces. Filters may be piggy-backed. Listed by Wratten N and color: #8 Light-Yellow, #11 Yellow-Green, #12 – Yellow, #21 – Orange, , #21A – Light Red, #25A – Red, #47 – Violet #58 – Green, #80A – Medium Blue. Polarizer (30% trans.)

Serie1 Orthoscopic eyepieces (1- 1/4” in 8 focal lengths. Now available in .965” O.D. – These same Series 1 orthoscopic may also be ordered in the foreign standard .965” barrel. Manufactured to exacting specifications, these excellent orthoscopic will optimize the performance of any telescope. They are of the classical 4-element design, 45 degrees field, fully coated, with precise corrections for color and field flatness. We sell thousands of these Series 1 orthoscopic every year to serious amateurs, universities, and telescope manufacturers throughout the world. There are no finer eyepieces sold for under $25. Barrels are of machined brass, heavily plated, and are threaded to accept our color filters directly. Focal lengths 4,5,6,7,8,9, 12.5, 18.25 mm.

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Serie 1 Kellner Eyepieces (1 – ¼” O.D.). The 3-element Kellner design has long been a favorite of amateurs seeking a highly-corrected, yet moderately priced, eyepiece. The 40 mm focal length is an exceptionally fine low-coast, wide-field eyepiece. Fully coated. Barrels are threaded for our filters. Focal lengths: 6,12,25, 40 mm.

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Precision Rack-and-Pinion Focusers. Carefully machined, all-metal construction. All 3 models include helical-cut rack for ultra-smooth focusing without backlash. Universal bases fit all tube sizes. Standard 1 – 1/4“ eyepiece holders. Each focuser is guaranteed to be the finest obtainable in its class. Model #67- Strong, light-weight design for 4” to 10” telescopes. 2 – 3/16” travel. An excellent value. Model #640 – a heavy-duty deluxe focuser for 6” to 16” telescopes. Full 3” travel. Ideal for both visual and photographic applications. Model #680 – our finest focuser. Accepts both 1 – ¼” and 2” eyepieces. Full 3” travel, for photo or visual observing with 6” top 16” telescopes.

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Research-Grade. Erfle 20 mm. Manufactured to the same stringent standards as our Research Grade Orthoscopic, with a wide 75” apparent field. The virtual absence of curvature to the extreme field edge affords truly breathtaking observational opportunities.

Research-Grade telenegative Amplifiers (1 – ¼”). The world’s finest Barlow lens. Full 26 mm clear-aperture achromat, with virtually flawless corrections for chromatic and spherical aberrations.

The Meaning of Mackerel Clouds

The Meaning of Mackerel Clouds

The science behind the farmer’s and sailor’s maxims

Weather folklore has been passed down through the ages by mariners and farmers who relied on their own observations of astronomical events, animal behaviors, and atmospheric changes to predict upcoming weather events.

Today, while the average person’s ability to observe the natural world has declined, much of the folklore still exists, partly because of a psychological yearning to keep in touch with a time when humans seemed more in tune with their environment. Here we help discern what of today’s remaining weather lore is still viable: Red sky at night, sailors delight.

Red sky in the morning, sailor take warning: Much of the weather folklore based on observations of atmospheric phenomena is a fairly good predictor of short-range weather changes. In the mid-latitude regions, the general flow of storm systems follows the jet stream from west to east. The red color at night is due to the reflection of the red colors from the sun as it lowers in the western sky. This signals that the jet stream has pushed the storm systems out of your area. If clouds appear red in the morning, this means that the sun is rising in clear skies to the east with clouds approaching from the west, indicating the storm system is to your west and moving your way.

Roseraie. Photo: Elena

Mackarel clouds in the sky, expect more wet than dry: This is another good example of accurate weather folklore based on atmospheric observations. Mackerel clouds refer to cirrocumulus clouds that appear pearly white with scaly formations akin to the scales on a fish, Ancient mariners knew that these clouds presaged the approach of a warm front that would produce rain or snow within the next 12 to 18 hours.

When round the moon there is a halo, the weather will be cold and rough: The halo is generated by cirrostratus clouds 15,000 to 20,000 feet up in the atmosphere. These clouds cover great areas with a uniform thickness of ice crystals, which are responsible for many optical wonders. A halo around the moon generally means stormy weather within the next 24 hours.

When smoke hangs low, a storm is approaching: Meteorologists attribute the phenomenon of smoke hanging low to low pressure systems that cause the atmosphere to be unstable and can signal the approach of stormy weather. However, sometimes near lakes, and in valleys, local air circulation can dominate the larger scale circulation that can give a false reading.

When hornets build their nest close to the ground, expect a hard winter: Folklore that deals with animals and long-term weather forecasts generally is false. Meteorologists believe that if people observed the hornet’s activities over a long period of time, they would find no correlation between the hornet’s behaviour and seasonal forecasts. The same is true for folklore that links a squirrel’s very bushy tail or a large black band on a woolly-bear caterpillar with an upcoming severe winter. 

If bees stay at home, rain will soon come: We can liken this folklore to similar and associate approaching storms with hornets lining up to go back to their nest, cows lying down in a field, frogs singing more than usual. Scientists admit that these examples are difficult to prove or disprove, because scientists can’t isolate what in the environment would be causing these behaviours. However, we would have to err on the side of bee keepers who swear by the ability of their bees to predict rain. With cows, though, we can jokingly ask, “if 25 cows are lying down in a field, and 25 are standing up, does that mean there’s a fifty percent chance of rain?”

Crickets are a poor man’s thermometer: Counting the chirps of a cricket, is an accurate way of determining temperatures above 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Below 40 degrees, a cricket’s metabolism is too slow. To get the current air temperature within one degree Fahrenheit, count the number of chirps in a 14-second period and then add 40 this number.

Pins Victoria Park. Weather folklore has been passed down through the ages… Photo: Elena

The air smells sweet before a storm: Science definitely has an explanation for this folklore. Before a storm, lower pressure predominates, which causes plants’ stomatic openings to enlarge and emit more gases, including ones that are aromatic.

When human hair becomes limp, rain is near: Human hair – especially blond hair – becomes thicker and longer when exposed to increases in humidity, which sometimes mean rain is near. In fact, early hygrometers designed to determine the moisture content of the air relied on measuring the changes in the length of a human hair.

Sinus and joint pain signals story weather: This folklore, at least for arthritis sufferers, has been proved to signal rapid changes in the weather. Pressure changes , the cause of the pain, signal the unstable atmospheric conditions that typically precede a storm.