Ecotherapy

 Ecotherapy

Environmental Psychology

The purpose of the present essay is to describe ecotherapy as it applies to ecopsychology. Ecopsychology is a novel, less discussed branch of psychology focusing on the interrelation between psychological mechanisms and the environment. Furthermore, ecotherapy comprises part of the ecopsychological realm. Thus, while not necessarily a therapy, and certainly distinct from more traditional and/or clinical therapies, such as CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy), ecotherapeutical constructs may be used in an overall well-being sense.

Clearly, psychotherapeutic approaches vary in their use and effectiveness. For example, psychoanalysis, pioneered by psychoanalysis founding father, Sigmund Freud, remain only as an inspirational basis for psychology students, whereas today’s therapists employ approaches such as CBT, or debated methods, such as hypnotherapy. Indeed, CBT has been proven to be more effective in treating MDD (Major Depressive Disorder, also known as depression) in combination with medication, as compared to medication alone. In fact, mental health professionals argue that in the long run, this combination of treatments generates more long lasting results than antidepressants alone.

Environment ecology. Photo by Elena

However, an important distinction must be made between psychologists and psychiatrists. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who completed a specialization in the field. Conversely, psychologists are not licensed to prescribe medication, and as a rule do not treat patients in any way, even though some people may find it very helpful to talk to psychologists. Another major contrast between the two professions, is that psychiatrists mainly concentrate on topics which would correspond most closely to abnormal or clinical psychology, while psychologists look at all aspects of the human mind and behaviour, including consumer relations (industrial psychology), human motivation (positive psychology), metacognition and thinking processes (cognitive psychology) , as well as, personality traits, communication and building friendships (social psychology) and so on.

In 1996, Howard Clinebell wrote a book on ecotherapy. Ecotherapy, an increasingly important subject in today’s world threatened by global warming, outlines an Earth-centred approach to human well-being. Parallels may be drawn with ancient cultures, when in order to be happy and well-rounded, it was believed that humans had to live in harmony with their environment. Nonetheless, in the modern concrete jungle, the balance has been lost, and ecotherapy may restore this balance (applied ecopsychology). Clinebell describes a three-fold approach to ecology as it benefits the human psyche.

Ecotherapy. Photo: Elena

Ecotherapy may be viewed a set of theoretical, therapeutical applications based on nature, wildlife, the environment and humanity connectedness. Naturally, ecotherapy is of great interest to environmental psychology. Interestingly, psychology has seen a widely documented discussion called the nature vs. nurture debate. Consequently, behaviourists, such as B.F. Skinner, support the nurture and environmental arguments, while geneticists lend credence to the nature side. Nonetheless, and most importantly, there seems to be a consensus among modern psychologists that it is actually an interaction of genes and environment which is most justified. Thus, along these lines, it becomes fundamental to reconnect with the environment, paying particular attention to ecology.

Research findings aside, one needs not read an academic, peer-reviewed article to see how beneficial a walk through a national park may be. Indeed, spending time in the outdoors has countless beneficial effects, but as is usual with all human undertaking, safety and moderation are warranted concerns to keep in mind. Also, from a positive psychology perspective, keeping an open-mind, a positive attitude and avoiding both recklessness and overthinking appear to be healthy path to embark on. Therefore, the present paper briefly introduces ecotherapy as it applies to environmental psychology and ecopsychology.

Attachment Theory by Mary Ainsworth

Attachment Theory by Mary Ainsworth

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology which studies the individual’s development across the lifespan. Starting in childhood, development psychologists such as Piaget, Kohleberg and Vygotsky explain the workings of the mind of children, adolescents and developing adults. Also, Freud and Erickson likewise describe stages of development. Thus, Mary Ainsworth was a Canadian developmental psychologist who greatly contributed to the field with her theory on attachment. The theory rested on the strange situation paradigm and described several styles of attachment.

Feelings of attachment are sometimes transferred onto objects. Indeed, people get attached to their plush teddy bears or fluffy kitten. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

But what is attachment? Attachment constitutes affection, tenderness and feelings of belongingness felt towards an individual or group of individuals, such as a family.

For example, the Holidays are a period when families come together and celebrate being a family and sharing with loved ones. Hence, in the strange situation paradigm an infant is left alone with a stranger, while their caretaker is in another room. The way the infant interacts with the stranger is said to portray the attachment style, which can in turn be secure or insecure. The insecure type is further subdivided into ambiguous and dismissive.

Eating Disorders

Eating Disorders

The purpose of this essay is to discuss eating disorders as they relate to psychology and neuroscience. Eating disorders (EDs) are classified as mental illnesses by the DSM-IV-TR. The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistics Manual) is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The better known of these diseases are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating.

Despite efforts to circumvent them, some Websites actually encourage, or at least give tips and tricks to, individuals trying to lose weight in unhealthy fashions. These sites, called ‘pro-ana’ for anorexia, and ‘pro-mia’ for bulimia, offer advice and images designed to inspire one to keep one’s BMI (Body Mass Index) alarmingly low, referred to as ‘thinspiration”. To be fair, many post a disclaimer stating that the ‘lifestyle’ is hard, dangerous and that they discourage anyone from adopting it, having themselves little choice in the matter.

Many believe that the world of fashion is, at least in part, the cause for disordered eating. Following the tragic deaths of several models due to starvation and related complications, some fashion shows have introduced a minimum BMI for models wishing to participate. In trying to elucidate eating disorders, the media has often been blamed for upholding an unattainable thin ideal. Perhaps as a response, and as an attempt to counter the heavily skewed portrayal of female beauty and fitness in the media, some companies now design advertising campaigns promoting a broader understanding of attractiveness.

Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty”: In trying to elucidate eating disorders, the media has often been blamed for upholding an unattainable this ideal. Perhaps as a response, Dove, the famous personal care brand, has designed a Campaign for ideal Beauty, which promotes a broader understanding of attractiveness.

On the academic side, the neural correlates of EDs have been examined. For instance, in comparing brain function of patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa and healthy controls, Vocks et al. (2010) carried out an fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) study, in which they asked women to look at photographs of themselves and others in a bikini. The authors found that the subjects with both EDs showed reduced cerebral activity in the inferior parietal lobule while watching their own bodies as compared to healthy controls. The finding was deemed related to body-related avoidance behavior.

Anorexic Girl. Autoportrait, Megan Jorgensen in the future tense (Artwork by Elena)

Further, Riva (2010) suggests that EDs may be due to an allocentric representation locked in long-term memory. The situation may be fostered by the medial temporal lobe, more specifically the connection between the hippocampal complex and the amygdala. In addition, Schmidt and colleagues (2010) cite several previous works, which all demonstrate that cognitive, emotional and reward processing are impaired in individuals suffering from the anorexia nervosa condition. The writers affirm that translational research could improve treatment of the diseases, which has been documented as having a high dropout rate in adult clinical populations. Steinglass & Walsh (2006) similarly report that the relapse rate is high, and maladaptive behaviors (such as obsessions with food, calorie counting and weight) remain difficult to alter.

In modern society, the pressure to look good is omnipresent. The popular culture, photoshopped pictures of stars, glamorous magazines… today’s population is flooded with images of beautiful people. Not surprisingly, it has been argued that this is one of the causes that more marriages fail today than ever before. As one glances at these unattainable ideals, the unconscious registers that there are incredibly attractive mates available, and the “real people”, no matter how attractive, seem to lose in comparison.

Mores change, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, a beautiful woman was considered a chubby woman; one needs only to look at The Three Graces to understand the extent of this statement. However, since the 1960s there has been a decreasing weight trend in Playboy centerfolds and fashion models. In some young men, the media obsession has resulted in steroid use and excessive weight training. However in mostly young women and some homosexual young men, the pressure to be thin has taken a very dramatic turn, sometimes with fatal consequences: eating disorders.

Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating are categorized as mental illnesses.

References:

• Riva, G. (2010). Neuroscience and eating disorders: The role of the medial-temporal lobe. Nature Proceedings, March 3: 1-3.
• Schmidt, U., Oldershaw, A. & van Elburg, A. (2010). Translating experimental neuroscience into treatment of eating disorders: Two examples. In Adan, R. A. H. & Kaye, W. H. (Eds), Behavioral Neurobiology of Eating Disorders, Current Topics in Behavioral Neuroscience.
• Steinglass, J. & Walsh, T. (2006). Habit learning and anorexia nervosa: A cognitive neuroscience hypothesis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39: 267-75.
• Vocks, S., Busch, M., Gronemeyer, D., Schulte, D., Herpertz, S. and Suchan, B. (2010). Neural correlates of viewing photographs of one’s own body and another woman’s body in anorexia and bulimia nervosa: an fMRI study. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 35 (3): 163-76.

Working Hard or Hardly Working?

Working Hard or Hardly Working?

Is it better to take vacations or vacation pay? Does taking a vacation reduce one’s desire (or at least, capacity) to work? We all, or most of us, want to relax in the sunny South, but we also know of people who seldom take vacations or sick days. Some people say that it is easier that way, that work becomes such a routine that you hardly see it as work anymore, just as part of your life.

Others stress the necessity of going on vacation because of burnout fears. Psychologists agree that work-related stress can cause one to experience symptoms of anxiety and even depression, in the long run. That being said, work alone will not necessarily cause a depression per se, but given a hostile environment coupled with a genetic predisposition to the condition, the result could be a full-blown MDD (major depressive disorder).

Hard work. Illustration by Elena

Industrial psychology and organizational behaviour are an interbreed of psychological science and business studies. Psychologists have looked at different work conditions, and their influence on the productivity of workers. In one study, more light led to better job satisfaction. Indeed, working in a positive environment that one enjoys, especially when feeling valued and appreciated leads to better employee morale and thus, better employee retention.

Further, many firms today focus on such aspects of the workplace, which is why many companies offer to employees gym memberships and other health-related incentives. However, nothing surpasses, at least for the author of these lines, a good, wholesome vacation on a tropical island. Fairytale exotic locations such as the Bahamas, Hawaii, Tahiti, Turks & Caicos or the Cayman Islands come to mind… Also, many people in cold countries such as Canada, travel South to escape the rough winters, but this is easier done than said, especially with full-time employment. Working from home or for a flexible employer comes in handy at this point.

Default Mode Network

Default Mode Network

Spreng and Grady (2009), in a study published in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, investigated the neuronal substrates of autobiographical memory, prospection and theory of mind. The scientists found that concepts rely on the DMN (default mode network). In order to achieve this they used neuroimaging techniques (fMRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and PLS (partial least squares) analysis.

Autobiographical memory, prospection and theory of mind share common brain activity, including the frontal and parietal lobes (the brain is divided into four lobes the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital). Activation of the DMN in the experimental as opposed to the control condition was evident and consistent. Researchers often rely on a control group to test the results and verify the measurements of the dependent variable.

Flashing lights. Image: Elena

Random Regret Minimisation

Chorus (2010) propose a model in which they postulate that when choosing, people aim to minimize regret. The model is compared and contrasted with the Random Utility Maximization’s linear-additive MNL model. Anticipated regret is important in several disciplines, including psychology, microeconomics and marketing. Current theories state that individuals tend to minimize regret when choosing. Further, regret is defined as when a foregone alternative performs better than the chosen one.

Individuals experience regret on almost a daily basis. If not regret, then at least choice. Everyday we are faced with making choices, and oftentimes we do not necessarily know whether the choice we made was the better one. The article described attempts to scientifically measure, or operationalize, the experience of regret in choice making situations, such as when making travel plans. For example, a person may experience regret when choosing the English Riviera over the French Riviera, and vice versa.