Psychology, Neuroscience and Happiness
Hedonia (Pleasure) + Eudaimonia (Meaning) = Happiness (Aristotle)
The following essay covers several topics in psychology and neuroscience. Sensation, perception and interpretation are all involved in understanding. A common obstacle to communication and mutual understanding is misinterpretation. As simple as it may seem, even the same words may actually carry dissimilar meanings for different people. While attention has often been directed towards differences due to cultural, educational and generational backgrounds, this may fail to represent the whole picture. For example, simple associations and memories may carry diverse meanings for someone who usually eats red apples and likes them, versus somebody else who instinctively pictures the fruit as green, sour and unpleasant due to personal allergies.
The saying goes that relationships are built on trust and communication, so at least in interpersonal and public relations, such issues are quite important. Advice on how to communicate better abounds, but with a lot of contradictions. Some maintain that one should always use first person pronouns “me, I” and avoid the “blame game” using the second person pronoun “you”. Conversely, others state the reverse, claiming that the “you view” makes the interlocutor feel that the conversation is focused on them, which in turn makes them feel appreciated, and thus more open and receptive to suggestions. Again, a potential argument may emerge that one may be uncomfortable being the center of attention, so the discussion is really a complicated one.
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| Listening to music may lift moods. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
Nonetheless, aside from psychological, there are also neuroscientific factors to interpretation. In the brain, likewise, interpretation is no simple matter. In general, before something can be interpreted it has to pass the sensation and perception steps.
Furthermore, psychologists, especially social psychologists, have long pondered the question of attraction and relationships. Sure, there have been theories on attachment and trust (Mary Ainsworth and Erik Eriksson, respectively), beauty standards (WHR – waist to hip ratio, complexion, gender differences), but what is it that attracts human beings to one another?
Who is the most beautiful woman in the world? Angelina Jolie, Aishwarya Rai and Megan Fox have all been designated as the most gorgeous women in the world at some point. Coincidentally, all three actresses have dark hair and light eyes. Regardless, ladies with dissimilar looks, such as Claudia Schiffer, Monica Belucci, Kim Tae-hee, Halle Berry and Lindsay Lohan (who often changed hairdos and appeared to wear contact lenses) have similarly been named the world’s beauty queens. One saying comes to mind: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Despite this, physical attraction has been cited as a factor in choosing partners, friends and, ironically enough, even in determining an expert’s credibility.
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| Certain colours influence mood. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
To answer the question, researchers have as usual turned to scientific methodology. Thus, conducting several studies, they have found that at least in the realm of friendship bond formation, liking depended on proximity. The result was documented in a study were students became friends with those living closest to them in dormitories (college dorms). Also, the literature is full of examples suggesting that friendships are more likely to spring from similarity in interests, background, values and intelligence. Who knows, maybe opposites fail to attract after all…
But, what about romantic bonds? Does the association stand? According to research, it seems so. Marriages are said to often bring together individuals of, likewise, the same backgrounds, the same education and the same age.
Still, psychology may not apply to every single romance or friend group or pair out there, but there seems to be a consensus that people tend to like those who like them. A further question is raised by such a statement, why then do so many believe that it is wise to play hard to get?
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| Social support, connectedness and friendship contribute to happiness. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
Further, several scientists have looked at the neural correlates of intelligence. Of course, since the concept is subjective and complicated, the task is a difficult one. Nonetheless, some interesting facts have been established. For example, Narr et al. (2006) attest that there is a relationship between regional grey matter thickness and IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests. As a brief aside, the brain is composed of grey matter and white matter. Gray matter represents neuronal cell bodies, while white matter consists of axons. Axons are myelinated, and myelin is a fatty substance that speeds transmission, which explains the colour. Thus, the authors have examined the association and found a positive correlation between grey and, to a lesser degree, white matter volumes and full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ). However, no such link was present in relation to cerebrospinal fluid quantities.
Further, Jia et al (2011) used fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging – a neuroimaging technique taking advantage of BOLD – or Blood Oxygen Level Dependent – changes to study the brain) to highlight neural correlates of numerical inductive reasoning. The researchers attest that there are two components to the process, namely identification and extrapolation. They report that the SPL (superior parietal lobule) extending into the precuneus and the left DLPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) were involved in both components. Brain anatomy is discussed in more detail elsewhere.
On the one hand, Gullick et al. (2010) suggest that individual differences in academic achievement in such areas as mathematics, may be caused by dissimilarities in working memory and intelligence. As a rule, the frontal and parietal lobes have been dosumented as processing numbers. On the other hand, in their study, symbolic number processing was associated with bilateral parietal, temporal and right frontal regions activity.
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, or the CNS – Central Nervous System and PNS – Peripheral Nervous System. The CNS contains the brain and the spinal cord, while the PNS represents cranial nerves and ganglia. Neurons are brain cells. Several different types of neural and glial cells exist: oligodendrocites, astrocytes, pyramidal cells, stellate spiny neurons, Schwann cells.
A neuron consist of a nucleus, the cell body or soma, an axon and dendrites ending in terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters are discharged into the synaptic cleft, the space between neurons. The are several billions neurons in the brain, as many as there (almost) as there are estimated stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy).
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| Ecotherapy. Expressive art therapy shows that expression through visual arts may help with well-being. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
Loud noise or sound can cause hair cell trauma and, consequently, noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). Fryatt et al. (2011) explain that this is often due to damage to spiral ganglions, the afferent neurons innervating the cochlear neuronal components. Other apoptosis is due to chemical and other trauma, potentially resulting in other audition conditions such as tinnitus and hyperacusis.
Neuron can also refer to the neural simulation software, used by neuroscientists in research, such as Varela and colleagues (2011) in their study on PFC (PreFrontal Cortex) neurons, stress and plasticity. Many models of neuroplasticity have been proposed (Brito & Gerstner, 2011), such as the concepts: ICA (Independent component plasticity), STDP (spike timing dependent plasticity, and non-linear Hebbian rule as related to BCM theory.
In line with the notion that the neurotransmitter dopamine elicits learning by its influence on neuroplasticity, Monte-Silva and colleagues (2011) found that D2 receptor blockade prevents theta burst stimulation-induced neuroplasticity in the motor cortex. Dopamine has a total of five types of receptors: D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5.
Hoenig and coauthors (2011) confirm that experience dependent plasticity is seen in musicians by profession. Following repeated musical practice and exposure, professional musicians brains literally change, particularly in perceptual and motor areas. According to their study, the cortical alterations extend further, encompassing regions deemed to process higher level associations, mainly by linking, in musicians but not non-musicians, perception and conceptual representation of auditory stimuli.
Cortex plasticity seems to depend on several factors. For example, Seredynski et al. (2011) studied the subject by focusing on the Japanese quail. The authors found a relationship between estrogen (female hormone) receptors and neuroplasticity. Another study, conducted by Spingath et al. (2011), portrays an alternative way of approaching the topic. For instance, these researchers found that in macaques, neuroplasticity in uncomplicated spatial tasks was the result of selective suppression and non-selective response enhancement.
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains the autonomic and somatic subdivisions. Finally, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) encompasses the sympathetic and parasympathetic subsystems.
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| Flagrant Garden. Hobbies such as gardening may keep boredom at bay. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
What is happiness? Which are the neural correlates or neuronal substrates of happiness? Some equate the notion with love and interpersonal harmony. Others try to study it scientifically. Although indispensable to establish corresponding neural correlates, scientific inquiry is complicated by the state’s subjectivity (Kringelbach & Berridge, 2010).
Brunori (2003) brings up an interesting point, mainly that relational goods can, by definition, only be enjoyed in the context of relationships with others. Illustrations include social approval and recognition, sense of belonging, friendship, companionship and other concepts requiring reciprocity. Positional goods act as their counterparts, implying a zero sum game.
More neuroscientifically, Khalfa et al. (2005) address the question from a distinct point of view, centering on brain regions involved in the recognition of sad and happy melodies. The authors assert that both neocortical and subcortical structures are recruited. Also, in the experiment, unhappy tunes elicited activity in the left orbito- and mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex, contrary to the valence lateralization model. In line with the theory, the left frontal cortex is the one usually associated with happiness, while negatively valenced stimuli rely to a greater extent on the right hemisphere.
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| Positive emotions, such as that gained from a sense of one’s academic accomplishment, may contribute to happiness. Image: Megan Jorgensen (Elena) |
Further, previous work (Blood et al., 1999) has stated that cerebral regions linked to musical pleasantness [consonance vs. dissonance] were: the right para-hippocampic gyrus, subcallosum cingulate, orbitofrontal cortex and frontal pole regions. Differences of stimuli and subjectivity add to the complexity of such studies.
But what about the thalamus and vision, another topic of discussion in neuroscience or neurobiology? Aside from Bruce Willis starring movies such as The Sixth Sense, humans are generally believed to have five senses: vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In neuroscience, these are subdivided into the sensation, perception and interpretation stages. Thus, vision would first be acknowledged by receptors (rods and cones in the retina at the back of the eye), then transmitted to the brain’s “relay station” — the thalamus, and finally processed in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
Further, the thalamus is composed of three elements: the lateral geniculate nucleus, the pulvinar and the thalamic reticular nucleus. Moreover, thalamic neurons come in three types: magnocellular, parvocellular and koniocellular; each contributuing diversely to visual input processing and connecting to dissimilar layers of the visual cortex.
Saalmann & Kastner (2009) explain that there is agreement in the literature that the thalamus relays sensory signals to the brain. However, in their account, the researchers demonstrate that the real picture is much more complicated, engaging the contribution of the pulvinar and geniculate nucleus, and awarding greater control to the structure over vison in general. Rees (2009) adds credence to the above affirmation, reiterating that evidence is growing that the thalamus is more active in directing the specific perceptive ability. So, it may be that thalamic nuclei determine where observatory attention is allocated. Whether the role played by the brain region of interest in this brief essay is primary or secondary in administering this particular human sense, fMRI, electrophysiological and histological data are continuing to shed light on the subject. For a more detailed mapping of the brain area, one is referred to Krauth et al. (2010). The purpose of the present essays was to cover several topics in psychology and neuroscience.
References:
- Krauth, A., Blanc, R., Poveda, A., Jeanmonond, D., Morel, A. & Szekely, G. (2010). A mean three-dimensional atlas of the human thalamus: Generation from multiple histological data. NeuroImage, 69: 2053-62.
- Rees, G. (2009). Visual attention: The thalamus at the centre? Current Biology, 19 (5): R213-4.
- Saalmann, Y. B & Kastner, S. (2009). Gain control in the visual thalamus during perception and cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 662 (19): 1-7.[Article in Press; available online at http://www.princeton.edu/~napl/pdf/Saalmann_Kastner_09.pdf ]
- Blood, A., Zatorre, R., Bermudez, P. & Evans, A. (1999). Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic regions. Nature Neuroscience, 2: 382-7.
- Brunori, L. (2003). Relational goods in society, mind and brain: Between neurons and happiness. Group Analysis, 36: 515-25.
- Khalfa, S., Schon, D., Anton, JL. & Liegeois-Chauvel, C. (2005). Brain regions involved in the recognition of happiness and sadness in music. Brain Imaging: NeuroReport, 16 (18): 1981-4.
- Kringelbach, M. L. & Berridge, K. C. (2010). The neuroscience of happiness and pleasure. Social Research, 77 (2): 659-78.
- Hoenig, K., Muller, C., Herrnberger, B., Sim, EJ., Spitzer, M., Ehret, G. & Kiefer, M. (2011). Neuroplasticity of semantic representations for musical instruments in professional musicians. NeuroImage, 56: 1714-25.
- Monte-Silva, K., Ruge, D., Teo, J. T., Paulus, W., Rothwell, J. C. & Nietsche, M. (2011). D2 receptor block abolishes theta burst stimulation-induced neuroplasticity in the human motor cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology: 1-6.
- Seredynski, A. L., Ball, G. F., Balthazart, J. & Charlier, T. D. (2011). Specific activation of estrogen receptor Alpha and Beta enhances male sexual behavior and neuroplasticity in male Japanese quail. PLoS ONE, 6 (4): e18627.
- Spingath, E. Y., Kang, H. S., Plummer, T. & Blake, D. T. (2011). Different neuroplasticity for task targets and distractors. PLoS ONE, 6 (1): e15342.
- Brito, C. SN & Gerstner, W. (2011). General conditions for spiking neurons and plasticity rules to perform independent component analysis. BMC Neuroscience, 12 (1): 124.
- Fryatt, A. G., Mulheran, M., Egerton, J., Gunthorpe, M. J. & Grubb, B. D. (2011). Otottrauma induces sodium channel plasticity in auditory afferent neurons. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 48 (1): 51-61.
- Varela, J. A., Wang, J., Varnell, A. L. & Cooper, D. C. (2011). Control over stress induces plasticity of individual prefrontal cortical neurons: A conductance-based neural simulation. Nature Proceedings: Neuroscience, 1-2.
