Elena's Legacy. Texts written by Elena, excerpts from texts she liked, her artworks.

Thursday, February 8, 2018

The Importance of Social Support

The importance of social support has largely been established in the academic literature. Indeed, studies have shown that people with more social ties are less likely to get sick, for example to get the flu, according to one study. Needless to say, in today’s world, with the growing popularity and almost omnipresence of social media and social networking Websites, it seems warranted to claim that sociability has become ever more important. In fact, sociability may even be conducive to finding a job!

Perhaps, one’s behaviour is reflected in one’s social surroundings. Image: Megan Jorgenson (Elena)

For example, psychologists have said that the more social contacts one has, the more likely is the person to generate more social ties. Indeed, we seem to make friends through friends, or build novel relationships through established ones. Thus, to find a job, one is most likely to be able to brush up on one’s contacts (an advice often given to jobseekers), if one has a large social base. However, as is often the case, quality is more important than quantity. As the saying goes: “I’d rather have one dollar, than four quarters”, emphasizing the importance of true friends over mere fair-weather acquaintances.

Intelligence & IQ

The present essay highlights the psychological discussion surrounding intelligence. Evidently, intelligence, cognitive process as well as cognitive and other skills and abilities, are topics of particular interest to psychologists, whether in the social psychology, cognitive psychology or neuroscience branches of the social science. But what is intelligence? Does it predict behaviour? Does it guarantee success? Can one be too smart for one’s own good, as in paralysis by analysis? Is it an innate ability to adapt to one’s environment? Psychologists have looked at the matter tirelessly, and it seems that intelligence is a malleable construct, or institutions of higher learning or vocational skill acquisition would be a waste of time. Indeed, practice makes perfect!

Thus, aside from the multiple intelligences theory covered in introductory level courses on cognition, intelligence may be seen as several aspects of one’s thoughts, but also, and perhaps even more importantly behaviour, such as resourcefulness. Anatomically, intelligence may be related to grey matter, which corresponds to neuronal cells, or neurons, the cells’ bodies (called soma) to be more thorough and precise. Alternatively, white matter is composed of myelinated axons and comprise the connections between brain cells. However, brain compartmentalization refers to the different correlates of the cortex for diverse, largely independent attributes, such as implicit vs. explicit memory, spatial, verbal, mathematical intelligence, artistic skill and so on.

An intelligent lady. Illustration by Elena

Moreover, a discussion of human intelligence seems incomplete without addressing IQ (intelligence quotient), although the variable underscores only part of the larger picture. For example, two people may have the same IQ scores, but only one can draw perfect circles without a compass, an aspect of intelligence overlooked by psychometric tests measuring raw IQ. Statistically, IQ distribution in the general population is bell shaped, with most individuals ranging close to the middle, with a smaller proportion of individuals at extremes of the continuum. However, IQ scores have been consistently correlated with academic achievement, even though broader success in life fails to be predicted by the operational variable.

Perhaps a topic of even greater interest and importance is whether intelligence can be increased and developed. While IQ scores are fairly stable across the lifespan, give or take some changes with intellectual stimulation or lack thereof, memory and intelligence can be developed through cognitive exercises. Indeed, the statement comes as no surprise, or people would not spend countless hours on education, literature and quantitative problem solving. Along these lines, mnemonic techniques, such as the method of loci, improve memory. Incidentally, the method of loci consists of visualizing a house with several rooms when preparing for a speech delivered in public. Each idea discussed in the presentation is attributed a room, as one mentally walks through the house, one discusses the topics associated with each room. Additionally, studies have shown that with continual efforts, working memory simultaneous item holding limit could be enhanced. Thus, the paper above presents some of the ideas contributing to theories about intelligence in the literature.

Hugging Our Infants

The neuropsychologist James W. Prescott has performed a startling cross-cultural statistical analysis of 400 preindustrial societies and found that cultures that lavish physical affection on infants tend to be disinclined to violence. Even societies without notable fondling of infants develop nonviolent adults, provided sexual activity in adolescents is not repressed. Prescott believes that cultures with a predisposition for violence are composed of individuals who have been deprived – during at least one of two critical stages in life, infancy and adolescence – of the pleasures of the body. Where physical affection is encouraged, theft, organized religion and invidious displays of wealth are inconspicuous; where infants are physically punished, there tends to be slavery, frequent killing, torturing and mutilation of enemies, a devotion to the inferiority of women, and a belief in one of more supernatural beings who intervene in daily life.

Mammals characteristically nuzzle, fondle, hug, caress, pet, groom, love their young, behavior essentially unknown among the reptiles. If it is really true that the R-complex and limbic systems live in an uneasy truce within our skills and still partake of their ancient predelictions, we might expect affectionate parental indulgence to encourage our mammalian natures, and the absence of physical affection to prod reptilian behavior. There is some evidence that this is the case.

In laboratory experiments, Harry and Margaret Harlow found that monkeys raised in cages and physically isolated – even though they could see, hear and smell their simian fellows – developed a range of morose, withdrawn, self-destructive and otherwise abnormal characteristics. In humans the same is observed for children raised without physical affection – usually in institutions – where they are clearly in great pain.

We do not understand human behavior well enough to be sure of the mechanisms underlying these relationships, although we can conjecture. But the correlations are significant. Prescott writes: “The percent likelihood of a society becoming physically violent if it is physically affectionate toward its infants and tolerant of premarital sexual behavior is 2 percent.

Infants hunger for physical affection; adolescents are strongly driven to sexual activity. If youngsters had their way, societies might develop in which adults have little tolerance for aggression, territoriality, ritual and social hierarchy (although in the course of growing up the children might well experience the reptilian behavior).

We have done worse than interrupt communications between the whales everywhere on our planet, because there persists to this day a traffic in the dead bodies of whales. There are still humans who hunt and slaughter whales and market the products for lipstick or industrial lubricant.

If Prescott is right, in an age of nuclear weapons and effective contraceptives, child abuse and severe sexual repression are crimes against humanity. More work on this provocative thesis is clearly needed. Meanwhile, we can each make a personal and noncontroversial contribution to the future of the world by hugging our infants tenderly.

Going Back to School

Going back to school is an important decision in a person’s life, but it may be a wise decision especially in particular circumstances. The choices are abundant. You may enrol in a university, a college or a vocational training facility. Of course, that all depends on your goals and on the certificate, degree or other credentials you wish to get out of the undertaking.

As a general rule, private colleges can be quite expensive, but they provide you with certificates and placement opportunities which can lead to permanent, full time jobs and perhaps even a career. However, that is not guaranteed. University degrees carry more weight, but they take much longer to complete, especially if you’re going after a 4 year degree, as opposed to a certificate which can take a year to complete.

Going back to school. Illustration by Elena

The lack of guarantee is one of the problems with going back to school. For example, some people get stuck in unemployment and cannot find a decent job. Employment consultants may advise such persons to get training and education on board. But if there is no guarantee that studying will bring about a job (let’s say because the main problem is lack of experience and serious gaps on one’s resume), many people are reluctant to invest money, effort and time in an endeavour which may or may not bring about the expected result.

On the financial side of the question, there are different solutions, such as loans and bursaries. However, these can come with many conditions (such as specific trades or being considered a youth ages 18 to 29) and even if there are no conditions loans must be repaid. Bursaries don’t have to be repaid, but many people complain that loans and bursaries fail to cover all the costs related to living while studying full time. Of course one may also study part time, but loans and bursaries typically require a full time engagement in education or vocational training.

Glossary in Psychology

Cogito ergo sum – mathematician Rene Descartes, Latin for “I think therefore I am”

The following are some of the terms often encountered in neuroscientific research. Psychology similarly draws on the database.

ACETYLCHOLINE: A major neurotransmitter in the brain. The enzyme that breaks it down is called acetylcholinesterase.

AMYGDALA: Almond shaped nuclei in the temporal lobe. Part of the limbic system, mediate emotional reactions and memory.

Cogito ergo sum. Comic-book woman on Descartes: Cogito ergo sum is Latin for I think therefore I am. The phrase was coined by mathematician Rene Descartes. Image : Megan Jorgensen (Elena)

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS): Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic orchestrates the fight-or-flight (or freeze) response, while its parasympathetic counterpart modulates metabolism, thermoregulation and homeostasis maintenance.

BRAIN: The brain is part of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is divided into two hemispheres and four lobes. The four lobes are: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.

BRAINSTEM: The brainstem is the posterior part of the mammalian brain, continuing downwards to join the spinal cord.

BLIND SPOT: The location where the optic nerve leaves the eye lacks photoreceptors (rods and cones). Thus, there is no visual input for that, albeit small, part of the visual field. However, since the brain fills in the missing information from context and information form the other eye, humans are usually unaware of its existence.

GOLGI STAIN: A method developed by Camillo Golgi in 1873, which consists of “staining” neurons with chemicals they react to, making them visible and thus possible to outline projections.

INTERNEURONS: Also called relay neurons, interneurons connect afferent and efferent pathways.

LONELINESS: The psychological definition of loneliness (as defined by psychologists) is not the absence of, but the dissatisfaction with one’s, relationships. In contrast, solitude relates a state of contentment despite being alone.

MOTOR CORTEX: The part of the brain that is primarily responsible for movement is called the motor cortex. Other, adjacent strctures also influencing motion are the premotor and sensorimotor crtices. The localized homunculous is a topographical representation of the human body.

NEUROMARKETING: The application of neuroscientific knowledge to business practices. Often criticized as unethical and immoral.

NEURON: Brain cells consisting of a body (soma) and an elongated portion projecting outwards (axon). Short projections from neurons are called dendrites.

NEUROREGENERATION: Regrowth or repair of nerve or other cell tissue. The process differs between the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

NEUROSCIENCE: The scientific study of the nervous system (brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system). Traditionally considered a branch of biology, neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field, combining elements from other disciplines such as computer science, chemistry, mathematics, physics, linguistics, philosophy, psychology, medicine and engineering.

NEUROSTRANSMITTERS: Neurotransmitters are neurochemicals, or chemical messengers in the brain.

OLFACTORY BULB: The olfactory bulb is the forebrain structure primarily associated with the sense of smell.

PSYCHOLOGY: Psychology, especially neuropsychology, is a field close to neuroscience. Psychological disciplines are: experimental, cognitive, social, personality, abnormal, developmental, computational, evolutionary, positive, cultural and biological.

SfN (Society for Neuroscience): Society for Neuroscience is a non-profit membership organization for physicians and scientists studying the nervous system. Headquarters are located in Washington, DC; USA.

STARTLE RESPONSE: Brainstem reflex aimed at protecting the organism and enabling sudden reaction. The behavioral phenomenon is present in many species.

STELLATE NEURONS: Stellate neurons get their name because their shapes resemble those of stars. There are three main types: aspiny stellate cells, inhibitory interneurons and excitatory spiny stellate interneurons.

TALAIRACH COORDINATES: Talairach coordinates map the human brain. MNI (Montreal Neurological Institute) coordinates are additionally used.

THEORY OF MIND (ToM): The ability to infer others’ motivations and beliefs. Largely thought to develop faster in children with siblings and impaired in autism.

What is this catty robot thinking? An inference along these lines: ‘probably chasing the science fiction toy for fun’, represents the thought processes involved in theory of mind. Credit image: Copyright © Elena

UPTAKE PUMP: When neurotransmitter are transported back inside the terminal, the process is accomplished with the uptake pump. For that purpose, neurochemicals such as dopamine, serotonin or acetylcholine bind to this protein.

VALENCE: In neuroscience, the term valence refers to emotional value associated with stimuli. Thus, valence may be positive or negative.

VESICLES: Inside the axon’s terminal, there are small pouches dubbed vesicles. When a neuron fires, they release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

ZEITGEBER: Synchronization clues from the environment. The word is derived from German, literally meaning ‘time givers’.

ZEITGEIST: Also a German word, meaning the spirit of the time. However, the expression has since come to represent how explanations in the scientific community are influenced by the ideologies of their surroundings.