Dopamine

Dopamine

Dopamine is one of the major excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain. The neurochemical of the catecholamine group has been associated with reward mechanisms, novelty seeking, addiction and other behavioral and biological phenomena.

Too much dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia, too little to Parkinson’s disease (which is why patients taking antipsychotics would usually not be prescribed dopamine agonists, while patients with Parkinson’s disease are given L-Dopa, a dopamine precursor).

The present paper will attempt to highlight some of the repercussions dopamine has on the human experience. The involvement of dopamine in reward anticipation has largely been established. Ikemoto (2007) reviews scientific literature to arrive at a better understanding of the dopamine reward circuitry. For example, laboratory rats and mice learn to self-administer drugs of abuse unless they were given dopamine blockers (for a list of works see Ikemoto, 2007).

There are several types of dopamine receptors (D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5), persons with pathological overeating features have been found to have abnormally low quantities of D2 type receptors. Wang et al., (2001) used PET (positron emission tomography) scans to measure D2 receptors distribution in obese subjects compared to controls.

Too much dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia, too little to Parkinson’s disease. Photo by Elena.

The number of receptors correlated negatively with BMI (i.e. as recorded BMI increased, listed D2 numbers decreased; body mass index, underweight below 18.5, obese above 30). The authors hypothesized that since dopamine is responsible for motivation and reward feelings, individuals lacking dopamine may be overindulging to fill the chemical messenger void. Thus, by enhancing dopamine activity in persons with the condition, it may be possible to stop overeating in such cases.

Conversely, the opposite is true in patients with schizophrenia, they have an abnormally high D2 activity, which is predicted by the classic hypothesis that schizophrenia is related to dopamine hyperactivity leading to the logical consequence that all antipsychotics act as dopamine antagonists. Interestingly, in their article, Seeman & Kapur (2000) expose the contradiction that surrounds D2 receptors and the mental illness.

Some previous studies in vivo have found abnormalities, some failed to do so. Further, the authors caution that since most studies that have found increased D2 population in the striata of patients with schizophrenia postmortem were done following antipsychotic use, the drugs may have influenced the outcomes. In reviewing a vast array of literature, Huey et al. (2006) came to the conclusion that patients with frontotemporal dementia (FTD) exhibited a dopaminergic deficiency.

Other neurotransmitter circuits they covered in their meta-analysis were serotonin, also deficient, and acetylcholine, appearing undamaged in FTD. However, they warn that the studies surveyed were challenged in sample size and lacked control groups, a potential limitation of the comparison. Loss of dopamine producing neurons is a distinctive feature of Parkinson’s disease (Lotharius & Brundin, 2002). As expected, the personality trait of novelty seeking, prompted by dopamine, is diminished in patients with the illness (Menza et al., 1993). Still it is unclear whether such conservatism is due to dopamine deficiency or reclusiveness brought on by the confines caused by the disease.

Benjamin et al. (1996) found that having two copies of the long allele of the D4DR gene led to higher scores on the NEO-PI-R personality questionnaire in areas coding for novelty seeking, and its components: exploratory excitability, extravagance and disorderliness. The conscientiousness (lower) and extraversion (higher) dimension were also correlated with the genotype. However, the experimenters remark that the polymorphism accounts for only part of the story since other genes are similarly involved in producing the phenotypes.

The five types of dopamine receptors are D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5. The neurotransmitter is associated interalia, with reward. Image: Elena.

References:

• Benjamin, J., Li, L., Patterson, C., Greenberg, B.D., Murphy, D.L. & Hamer, D.H. (1996). Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of Novelty Seeking. Nature Genetics, 12  (January): 81-4.
• Huey, E.D., Putnam, K.T. & Grafman, J. (2006). A systematic review of neurotransmitter deficits and treatments in frontotemporal dementia. Neurology, 66 (1): 17-22.
• Ikemoto, S. (2007). Dopamine reward circuitry: Two projection systems form the ventral midbrain to the nucleus accumbens-olfactory tubercle complex. Brain Research Reviews, 56 (1): 27-78.
• Lotharuis, J. & Brundin, P. (2002). Pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease: Dopamine, Vesicles and -synuclein. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3 (12): 932-42.
• Menza, M.A., Golbe, L.I., Cody, R.A. & Forman, N.E. (1993). Dopamine-related personality traits in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology, 43 (3): 505-508.
• Seeman, P. & Kapur, S. (2000). Schizophrenia: More dopamine, more D2 receptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97 (14): 7673-75.
• Wang, G. -J., Volkow, N.D., Logan, J., Pappas, N.R., Wong, C.T., Zhu, W., Netusil, N. & Fowler, J.S. (2001). Brain dopamine and obesity. The Lancet, 357 (9253): 354-57.

Computational Psychology

Computational Psychology

Psychology is everywhere. Body language analysis is one such example. You know… that if a person’s feet are pointed away from you, then they do not like you or that if their arms are closed, any potential deal if off. Psychology graduates often end up in business jobs and careers, no surprise there, given the overlapping fields of organizational behaviour, industrial relations and occupational psychology.

Computational neuroscience studies the information systems of the brain, the neural transduction of electrical current into meaningful concepts. Psychology is like the Borg (Star trek cybernetic race). Psychology assimilates and resistance is futile. The field may be roughly pictured as psychology assimilating engineering and computer science. Well, we’re sure you get the idea.

Developmental psychology, also called child psychology, follows the individual throughout the lifespan. Computational modelling is of great service to the discipline (Mareschal & Thomas, 2007). An advantage of the approach is that it eliminates mandatory reliance on subjective views.

The science itself debuted in the 70s and 80s, while the appearance of the connectionist model explaining cognitive, perceptive and linguistic phenomena quickly followed. The authors testify that intelligent computers are indeed upon us. In effect, the first intelligent computer was Logic Theorist, the first one such machine able to process symbols. Olsson (2008) reasserts that no existing model can not only compute but also explain all learning.

Computational psychology. Illustration by Elena.

Computational psychology and neuroscience have greatly contributed to the elucidation of nature’s mysteries. Computational psychology is closely related to linguistics. One of the best-known figures in linguistics is Noam Chomsky; some of his material is also used in the psychological fields of memory, learning and behaviour. The overlap occurs naturally since psychologists are interested in the acquisition, use and preservation of language.

Mysterians believe that despite all the computations that can be modelled, the true essence of the mind will remain infinitely elusive. The mind modularity theorem and computationalism, paint a picture where files are stored and retrieved. Connectionism stems from the mental schema of conceptualizing brain processing as a computer web.

But how exactly does the cognitive science study the mind computationally? Sun (2008) provides the answer:

Research in computational cognitive modeling, or simply computational psychology, explores the essence of cognition (broadly defined, including motivation, emotion, perception, and so on) and various cognitive functionalities through developing detailed, process-based understanding by specifying corresponding computational models (in a broad sense) of representations, mechanisms, and processes.

Computational psychology greatly overlaps, even in its very definition, with cognitive science. Cognitive science in turn, relies on artificial intelligence and psychology among others to achieve its scientific goals. Ideally, future technological advances will permit to the related discipline to progress in its own way.

References:

• Mareschal, D. & Thomas, M. S. C. (2007). Computational modelling in developmental psychology. IEEE Transactions of Evolutionary Computation, 11 (2): 1-14.
• Olsson, S. (2008). Computational models of skill acquisition. In Sun, R. Ed., The Cambridge handbook of computational psychology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.
• Sun, R. (2008). Introduction to computational cognitive modelling. In Sun, R. Ed., The Cambridge handbook of computational psychology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

“Enlightenment is not imagining figures of light but making the darkness conscious.” Carl Gustav Jung, Swiss psychiatrist, psychologist, Founder of the Analytic Psychology (1875-1961). Photo : © Megan Jorgensen.

About Ecotherapy

About Ecotherapy

Ecotherapy, earth-centered therapy or green therapy refers to healing and growth nurtured by interaction with the earth.

There is a difference between ecotherapy which includes work with the body and ecopsychology, the study of the psychological relations with nature providing a solid theoretical, cultural, and critical foundation for ecotherapeutic practice. Experts regard ecotherapy as applied ecopsychology. As such, Ecotherapy employs different methods and practices in systematic attempts to reconnect the psyche and the body with the terrestrial sources of all healing.

Ecotherapy is also different from psychotherapy in its focus on transforming our relationship to the natural world. Psychotherapy aims to help individuals understand and create meaning from emotional and psychological difficulties they are experiencing. Ecotherapy, utilising psychotherapeutic principles, forms a relationship to the natural world in order to enable us to make sense of our inner emotions and life experiences. We may feel depressed, anxious, lost and alone, overwhelmed by our thoughts and feelings and unable to draw upon previous ways of coping. In short, psychotherapy in combination with the natural environment allows us to develop new ways of understanding ourselves and feel integrated in our lives.

Ecotherapists believe that nonhuman forms of life have a right to exist for their own needs and purposes, and that this includes leaving plant and animal ecocommunities intact and protecting the needs, health, and sense of agency of our animal companions.

Ecotherapists regard our work as part of an ongoing collective effort to build just and sustainable communities in which all forms of life can delight and mature.

Ecotherapy. Photo by Elena.

As a term defining nature-based methods of psychological and physical healing, ecotherapy points to the need to reinvent psychotherapy and psychiatry as sciences related to the human-nature relationship. Ecotherapy takes into account both the traditional indigenous wisdom and the modern scientific understandings of the universe. This approach defends the point of view that people are connected with, embedded in, inseparable from the rest of nature. Grasping this fact shifts our understanding of how to heal the human psyche and the dysfunctional human-nature relationship. In fact it has become clear that what happens to nature for good or ill impacts people and vice versa. And the process leads to the development of new methods of individual and community psychotherapeutic diagnosis and treatment.

Relationships of healing with nature and Earth require us to acknowledge our participation in industrial, governmental, or organizational actions that harm the environment and to seek alternative actions whenever possible. This relationship holds cultural, ecological, epistemological, spiritual diversity to be a precious source of enrichment, value, and, ultimately, survival. The more diverse the ecosystem, the greater its resiliency, creativity, and resourcefulness.

According to Howard Clinebell, who introduced the term Ecotherapy in 1996, an ecotherapist should  take guidance from an Ecological Circle of three mutually interacting operations or dynamics:

• Inreach: receiving and being nurtured by the healing presence of nature, place, Earth.
• Upreach: the actual experience of this more-than-human vitality as we relocate our place within the natural world.
• Outreach: activities with other people that care for the planet.

Here are some examples of ecotherapy research findings, quoted in different sources – “Connection to Nature Vital to Our Mental and Physical Health”, “Equine Therapy Helps Withdrawn Vets Reconnect, “immersion in Nature Makes us Nicer”, “71% Report Depression Decrease After Green Walk”, “How the City Hurts Your Brain…and What You Can Do About It”, “Drug Addiction: Environmental Conditions Play Major Role In Effective Treatment And Preventing Relapses, Animal Study Shows”.

Note that a certificate in ecotherapy is not a license to do psychotherapy, but ecotherapy techniques are being taught to practicing psychotherapists, whose concentration on mending relationships and inner conflicts benefits from placement in the wider ecological context in which all human activity unfolds.

Keep also in mind that although ecotherapy interventions tend to be much less invasive than drugs or psychotherapy, ecotherapist should always put the well-being of clients first and carefully monitor potential safety and health concerns.

Understanding one’s existence as such is always an understanding of the world (Martin Heidegger). Photo : © Megan Jorgensen.

Preventing Suicide

Preventing Suicide

It is a very difficult topic to bring up. However, when someone talks about suicide or brings up concern for a loved one, it is important to take action and seek help quickly.

What is suicide: suicide means that someone ends their life on purpose. However, people who die by suicide or attempt suicide may not really want to end their life. Suicide may seem like the only way to deal with difficult feelings or situations.

Who does suicide affect: About 4000 Canadians die by suicide every year. Suicide is the second-most common cause of death among young people, but men in their forties and fifties have the highest rate of suicide.

While women are three to four times more likely to attempt suicide than men, men are three times more likely to die by suicide than women.

Suicide is a complicated issue. People who die by suicide or attempt suicide usually feel overwhelmed, hopeless, helpless, desperate, and alone. In some rare cases, people who experience psychosis (losing touch with reality) may hear voices that tell them to end their life.

Many different situations and experiences can lead someone to consider suicide. Known risk factors for suicide include:

• A previous suicide attempt;
• Family history of suicidal behaviour;
• A serious physical or mental illness;
• Problems with drugs or alcohol; a major loss, such as the death of a loved one, unemployment, or divorce;
• Social isolation or lack of a support network;
• Family violence;
• Access to the means of suicide.

While we often think of suicide in relation to depression, anxiety, and substance use problems, any mental illness may increase the risk of suicide. It’s also important to remember that suicide may not be related to any mental illness.

Warning Signs. Illustration by Elena.

What are the warning signs

Major warning signs of suicide spell IS PATH WARM:

I – Ideation: Thinking about suicide.

S – Substance use: Problems with drugs or alcohol.

P – Purposelessness: Feeling like there is no purpose in life or reason for living.

A – Anxiety: Feeling intense anxiety or feeling overwhelmed and unable to cope.

T – Trapped: Feeling trapped or feeling like there is no way out of a situation.

H – Hopelessness or Helplessness: Feeling no hope for the future, feeling like things will never get better.

W – Withdrawal: Avoiding family, friends, or activities.

A – Anger: feeling unreasonable anger.

R - Recklessness: Engaging in risky or harmful activities normally avoided.

M – Mood change: A significant and brusque change in mood.

How can I reduce the risk of suicide?

Though not all suicides con be prevented, some strategies can help reduce the risk. All of these factors are linked to well-being.

These strategies include:

• Seeking treatment, care and support for mental health concerns – and building a good relationship with a doctor or other health professionals.
• Building social support networks, such as family, friends, a peer support or support group, or connections with a cultural or faith community.
• Learning good coping skills to deal with problems, and trusting in coping abilities.
• When a person receives treatment for a mental illness, it can still take time for thoughts of suicide to become manageable and stop. Good treatment is very important, but it may not immediately eliminate the risk of suicide. It is important to stay connected with a care team, monitor for thoughts of suicide and seek extra help if it is needed. Community-based programs that help people manage stress or other daily challenges can also be very helpful.

What can I do if I experience thoughts of suicide?

Thoughts of suicide are distressing. It is important to talk about your experiences with your doctor, mental health care team, or any other person you trust. They can help you learn skills to cope and connect you to useful groups or resources. Some people find it helpful to schedule frequent appointments with care providers or request phone support. Other things that you can do include:

• Calling a crises telephone support line;
• Connecting with family, friends or a support group. It can be helpful to talk with others who have experienced thoughts of suicide to learn about their coping strategies.
• If you are in crisis and aren’t sure what to do, you can always call 911 or go to tour local emergency room.

Some people find a safety plan useful. A safety plan is a list of personal strategies to use if you thing you are at risk or hurting yourself or ending your life. You can create a plan on your own, with a loved ones, ot with your mental health care team. Your plan may include:

• Activities that calm you or take your mind off your thoughts;
• Your own reasons for living;
• Key people to call if you’re worried about your safety;
• Phone numbers for local crises or suicide prevention helplines;
• A list of safe places to go if you don’t feel safe at home.

How can I help a loved one?

If you are concerned about someone else, talk with them. Ask them directly if they are thinking about suicide. Talking about suicide won’t give them the idea. If someone is seriously considering suicide, they may be relieved that they can talk about it.

If someone you love says that they are thinking about ending their life, it is important to ask them if they have a plan. If they have a plan and intend to end their life soon, connect with crisis services or supports right away. Many areas have a crisis, distress, or suicide helpline, but you can always call 911 if you don’t know who to call. Stay with your loved one while you make the call, and don’t leave until the crisis line or emergency responders say that you can leave.

The two most important things you can do are listen and help the connect with mental health services.

Listening

Here are tips of talking with a loved one:

• Find a private place or let your loved one take as much time as they need.
• Take your loved one seriously and listen without judgement – their feelings are very real.
• Keep your word – don’t make promise you can’t keep or don’t intend to keep.
• Tell your loved one that they are important and that you care about them.

Supports

If your loved one already sees a doctor or other mental health service provider, it is important that they tell their service provider about any thoughts of suicide they may have been having. Depending on your relationship, you can offer to help – by helping your loved one schedule appointments or by taking them to their appointments, for example.

If your loved one doesn’t see a mental health service provider, you can give them the phone number for a local crisis line and encourage them to see their doctor. Your loved one may also be able to access services through their school, workplace, cultural, or faith community.

Supporting a loved one can be a difficult experience for anyone, so it’s important to take care of your own mental health during this time and seek support if you need it.

If you need more help

Contact a community organization like the Canadian Mental Health Association to learn more about support and resources in your area.

Founded in 1918, the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) is a national charity that helps maintain and improve mental health for all Canadians. As the nation-wide leader and champion for mental health, CMHA helps people access the community resources they need to build resilience and support recovery from mental illness.

Visit the CMHA website at cmha.ca. Mental Health For All!

Thoughts of suicide are distressing. It is important to talk about your experiences with your doctor, mental health care team, or any other person you trust. Illustration: © Megan Jorgensen.

Placing Math on a Timeline

Placing Math on a Timeline

The study of numbers has been both practical and sublime for millennia.

Without numbers it would be impossible to set a clock, keep score, or create a symphony. If numbers had not been needed the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and China would not have felt it necessary to invent counting systems, which they then applied to their commerce and government. An early appreciation for the principles of geometry helped the Egyptians construct the pyramids and accurately record their boundaries.

By the sixth century, B.C., the Greeks took the practical math that they had learned from the Babylonians and Egyptians and ventured into more abstract investigations. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras and his disciples proposed a theorem, for instance, that showed the mathematical relationship among the three sides of a right triangle.  Another Greek, Euclid, was the first to suggest that geometry possessed a single set of logical rules. Archimedes laid the conceptual groundwork for integral calculus in the third century, B.C., and the celebrated astronomer, Ptolemy, played a leading role in developing trigonometry.

Developing Space Maths. Illustration by Elena.

The Romans largely contented themselves with the use of math in solving practical problems, but the more ethereal inquiries into the nature of numbers championed by the Greeks were taken up by Islamic thinkers in the 9th and 10th centuries. One of them, an astronomer named Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizimi, laid many of the foundations for algebra.

Beginning in the 11th century, Islamic advances in mathematics gradually made their way into Europe. But it was not until the Renaissance in the 15th century that Europeans contributed to the breakthrough, with astronomers such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler making major contributions.

Working independently, Sir Isaac Newton, an Englishman, and Baron Gotfried Wilhem von Leibniz invented calculus in the 1680s, which effectively ushered in the modern age of mathematics.

Following is a ready reference to many of the most commonly used mathematical concepts and operations.

An early appreciation for the principles of geometry helped the Egyptians construct the pyramids and accurately record their boundaries. Photo: © Megan Jorgensen.