Neuroscience

Neuroscience

What is a synapse or a neuron? Neurons are cells in the brain that are responsible for pretty much anything that a person does, thinks, and experiences and even for autonomous (involuntary) responses. Neurons fire, they discharge when they are depolarized. As sodium enters the cell, potassium exits aided by membrane permeability. A neuron has an axon, a sort of tail; the neurochemical is transported along the axon from the neuron’s nucleus into the synaptic cleft (the space between neurons). Once in the cleft the neurotransmitter (neurochemical produced by the neuron and responsible for most of what takes place in a mammal’s organism) is broken down, reabsorbed or “communicates” with neighboring neurons. The human brain contains several billions of neurons, for an analogy it is like a galaxy and the neurons are like stars. There actually are neurons that look like stars too (stellate cells).

Three layers of meninges protect the human brain: the dura mater, the arachnoid and the pia mater. In addition, there is the blood brain barrier (BBB), which is a mechanism that protects the brain from transmission of toxic agents that have already entered the body. The BBB is responsible for certain drugs being ineffective due to their inability to cross it. The brain contains two hemispheres, left and right, and four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital.

Any introductory neuroscience or cognitive science course will cover the fact that despite some specialization, most of the brain is active at any one time, even during REM (rapid eye movement, the deepest kind) sleep. However, one can also say that there exists a large compilation of scientific literature that demonstrates that certain areas are associated with certain events. Thus, if one had to simplify, the parietal lobe is responsible for thinking.

Rumor has it that Albert Einstein had 15% more gray matter in his parietal lobe than the average person. Gray matter is composed of neurons, and white matter of the myelinated nerve endings (myelin - fatty substance, enrobes axons, speeds transmission). Glial cells act as “support staff” to neurons. Further (simplifying) the occipital lobe is for eyesight; the temporal for memory and the frontal lobe is the seat of executive function.

Having a positive mental attitude is asking how something can be done rather than saying it can't be done. (Bo Bennett). Image : Megan Jorgensen.

Virtual Love

Virtual Love

Nothing says "I love you" like multiple murder attempts… and "Give me some time" after a decade of chances…

Are you stuck in a virtual, fantasy relationship? Are you dating an unavailable, emotionally distant person? Are you frustrated because the lover of your dreams largely exists in your own imagination? If you answered 'yes' to any of these questions, the post below may be for you…

In this day and age of social media, social interaction has become, paradoxically, increasingly difficult. As ironic as it may seem, many people with social or intimacy phobias rely on Websites such as Facebook, Twitter or Instagram to gain a sense of social self and an illusion of social life. Don't get me wrong, social networking platforms can be great to add to an already rich and fulfilling social life, but they hardly completely eliminate the need most human beings feel for face-to-face interaction and deep, meaningful relationships.

Naturally, psychology, the social science studying behavior and the mind, has many subdivisions. The disciplines branch out into such concentrations as social psychology, interpersonal psychology, personality psychology and child development psychology, among others (as of interest to this particular post, there are many more branches, obviously). Cognitive psychology or the study of cognition, outlines several types of intelligence. Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences will be discussed here, since the other subtypes are beyond the scope of the present short entry. Intrapersonal intelligence relates to people understanding what is going on within them, while interpersonal intelligence has to do with interacting with others. Interestingly, social psychologists define social competence as getting what one wants from others, while still successfully maintaining positive relationships with them. However, as with most processes involving the human psyche, all is not as simple as it seems…

For example, take Theory of Mind (ToM). Most people have malleable mental schemas guiding them through the social world; these mental representations of others' emotions, intentions and mental states are called ToM. Notwithstanding, some conditions are characterized by a pronounced lack of ToM, for instance Autism Spectrum Disorders, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Autism in itself is a mental health diagnosis, largely characterized by a deficiency in communication skills, social interaction, repetitive or odd behaviors and, an almost complete, lack of Theory of Mind. In fact, the disorder, usually detected in infancy or childhood, may be diagnosed using the Sally's Hidden Marble paradigm. People with autism may be completely unable to understand what another person is feeling or thinking, which sometimes results in extremely unpleasant consequences.

Flowers sent through a coworker do not equal quality time spent together.Illustration : Megan Jorgensen.

Another social interaction disorder is Asperger's disorder. Some believe Asperger's can be loosely defined as "autism light", others claim that Albert Einstein had Asperger's, but both conditions translate into difficulties with human interaction, albeit to different degrees. Nonetheless, social and personality differences in sociability need not always signify a mental health diagnosis, obviously. Still, social withdrawal is a symptom of many illnesses outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) published by the APA. Regardless, most disorders in the DSM specify that the symptom must cause distress to the person in order to be considered dysfunctional, in most cases. Yes, the mental health industry is indeed a very complex and sophisticated one.

Humans relay on social cues (tone of voice, facial expressions, body language) to understand each other, communicate effectively and coexist. Numerous psychological studies have confirmed that cultures across the world appear universal in their understanding of facial expressions, an exception being persons suffering from ASDs. As is usual in psychology and psychiatry, other factors remain at play. So, alternatively, abused children are better at reading facial expressions. Numerous studies have confirmed that emotions are expressed and understood universally across cultures, unlike customs which are often quite diverse in collectivistic and individualistic societies, among others.

At the other side of the spectrum are people high in Emotional Intelligence or EI for short. Unlike IQ (Intelligence Quotient), EQ (Emotional Quotient) refers to people's ability to manage their own and others' emotions, motivation and so on. Successful managers are usually said to score high on EQ tests. Although these two intelligence scoring methods need not necessarily correlate, intelligence helps in that it makes one a lot more resourceful in regards to coping with shortcomings in, or difficulties with, social skills.

On a slightly different note, to go back to the questions at the beginning of the article, some people get stuck in impossible relationships with unattainable or unavailable individuals. As unbelievable as it may sound, some dreamers may remain in love with the same person, fantasizing about the life they could have with the object of their affection for years, despite hardly ever seeing this person. Sometimes, the situation involves a celebrity and a fan who never actually got to meet the star. Other times, it may involve an amorous, hopelessly in love person who, despite all odds, believes that their beloved will someday change and be with them. Sadly, most of the time this never happens. To make a long story short, if your partner is not giving you what you want or need - let them know. If they continue ignoring you, avoiding you or plainly refusing to see you, not acting like the adult they are or treating you badly - you are faced with two choices: keeping your self-respect, leaving and finding the happiness you deserve with someone else who is willing to have a real, mature, meaningful relationship with you; OR staying with the dreamed up lover, losing all your self-worth and self-love for putting up with their antics (hey, after all, if you put up with so much, you'll never leave them, and they know!) and remaining miserable. Your choice, just don't write to us complaining about it if you choose the latter…

Some people may malevolently use, manipulate or lie to others to gain advantage. In contrast, other people may wish you well but simply be unwilling to take the next step, or to have the kind of relationship you want. To illustrate, let's take my sister's example, let's call her Emma for anonymity purposes. She has been involved with a wonderful man for many years. But, the man she is dating (yes, hardly even dating after years together!) is a bit of a commitment-phobe. He refuses to move in with her, hardly ever sees her at all (yes, we suggested she got self-esteem counselling for thinking someone who never sees her could actually have feelings for her, but bear with me), communicates with her sporadically and, absolutely, under no circumstances, wants to have a real-life, adult relationship with her. He even stubbornly declines any invitation to couple counselling! calling her dramatic, conflict seeking and selfish, when she so much as brings up her dissatisfaction with the (largely non-existent) relationship.

Why is she still with the guy? Is she the ugliest girl in town? may you ask, and you would be right to do so. No. She's quite pretty, and even self-confident, at times, but… Well, for one, she tends to put his needs above her own, exacerbated by the fact that the gentleman has ginger hair and is somehow horribly ashamed and insecure about it. What's more, every time she tries to leave said gentleman to have her natural and normal needs fulfilled elsewhere, he hounds her down, harasses her and just plainly refuses to let her go. Convinced that someone who fights so hard to keep her against her wishes must love her, or at least have a genuine interest in her, she goes back to him. And what happens? Back to square one. He ignores her, refuses to commit, to meet or even to talk, gaslights her, destroys and endangers her life and so on…

Tragic cycle of no-life! We all tell her, he does this because you accept it. He knows you love him and he can treat you like garbage, throw you under the bus, literally, because he has good excuses. But no matter how hard it is, he must make a choice. He must either take the difficult step to face his fears and make the next step (i.e. have an actual, real-life relationship with her), or they both must realize that their love is hopeless and has no future. Likewise, she must be strong in making him understand that he has to respect her needs and wants, or she will leave, for good. And he must understand that "I love you" and flowers sent through a coworker do not equal quality time spent together.

No one is perfect, and no relationship is all happiness and no struggles, but unconditional acceptance brings its own pitfalls. Thus, at the end of the day if he truly cannot be with her, then he should stop trying. Because if he is unwilling or unable to give her the relationship she deserves, then why waste her time and stop her from finding someone who will and forget about him altogether? Sometimes, in our affections for others, we forget that even someone closing in on their 50s can be quite selfish and childish, but we forgive them since they're suffering. Hey! What about us? Aren't we suffering too? Popular English saying, a bit too vulgar to write here, ……… or get off the pot!

A wolf howling to a full moon.  Illustration by Megan Jorgensen.

Famous Cases in Psychology

Famous Cases in Psychology

A researcher from Montreal’s famous Neurological Institute has come up with tremendous insights into human memory, with the case of patient H.M. studied by Brenda Milner.

H.M. had a trauma and lost the ability to form new memories, he had no retrograde (inability to remember events prior to accident) but complete anterograde (inability to remember events after the accident, i.e. to form new memories) amnesia.

Surprisingly, he could still learn new skills; therefore, his implicit memory remained intact (Scoville & Milner, 1957). Implicit memory covers skills and how to perform tasks (e.g. riding a bike), explicit memory refers to conscious storing of facts and events. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory - recollection of dates and names, and episodic memory - remembering particular situations. Memory can be very unreliable, as has been demonstrated by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer, so can be eyewitness testimony. Leading questions as well as mood of subjects greatly influences their responses. For example, in their study participants were shown a movie where two automobiles collided.

Afterwards, the answers differed depending on which of the three words was used in the following sentence: How fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit/bumped into each other? Responders reported greater speed and even seeing broken glass (of which there was none in the video) when the word smashed was employed (Luftus & Palmer, 1974). The tragic case of Phineas Gage, an employee who happened to be at a place of accident near the trains where he worked (Siggelkow, 2007). A metal rod flew and transpierced his skull through his eye. He survived; his IQ (intelligence quotient) remained intact but his personality changed forever. The rod cut through his frontal lobe, the center of executive function.

Executive function refers to planning, healthy inhibitions, coordinating activities and making decisions. Despite an intact intelligence, this unfortunate patient could never function as his former self again. Persons who suffer from executive dysfunction could, despite being an otherwise well-mannered person, star laughing at a funeral while undressing in public. Another feature of the disorder is the inability to switch between actions when it is appropriate to do so.

The problem is identified using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Robinson et al., 1980). The cards have different colors and shapes and have to be sorted by one of the characteristics, it is a feedback based procedure so the examiner will say ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’, when the person places each following card on top of one of the four already laying on the table. Without the testee’s knowledge, the rules change, but so does the feedback. A person with executive dysfunction has immense trouble switching what they are doing, even if intrinsically they understand that their perseveration (not to be confused with perseverance) is uncalled for.

References:

• Loftus, E.F. & Palmer, J.C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13 (5): 585-589.
• Robinson, A.L., Heaton, R.K., Lehman, R.A. & Stilson, D.W. (1980). The utility of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in detecting and localizing frontal lobe lesions.
• Scoville, W.B. & Milner, B. (2000). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience, 12 (1): 103-113.
• Siggelkow, N. (2007). Persuasion with case studies. Academy of Management Journal, 50 (1): 20-24.

Crowds are somewhat like the sphinx of ancient fable: It is necessary to arrive at a solution of the problems offered by their psychology or to resign ourselves to being devoured by them.” (Gustave Le Bon 1841-1931, a French social psychologist, sociologist, and physicist. Author of several works in which he expounded theories of national traits, racial superiority, herd behavior and crowd psychology). Illustration: © Elena.

Abnormal-Psychology (thesis)

Abnormal Psychology

Introduction

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is used by psychiatrists, as well as psychologists, although since they are not doctors, psychologists cannot diagnose a patient or prescribe medication. Psychology professionals’ treatment usually consists of cognitive behavioral (“talk” and restructuring) therapy.

The DSM-IV-TR is divided into five axes. Axis I states any mental disease, Axis II is for personality disorders and mental retardation, axis III is for general health, axis IV refers to psychosocial and environmental factors, and Axis V is for functioning (on a scale). Since its inception in 1952, the manual has changed many times and now includes substance abuse and eating disorders. All disorders have as a condition that they must cause significant distress to the patient and/or impair his or her functioning in some significant way.

Also, the disorder should not correspond to the expectations of the individual’s culture (e.g. if a person is part of a tribe that ritualistically believes going into trances and seeing mountains dance, a person from that tribe cannot be considered delusional if he or she complies with the norm; this may be a little exaggerated but hopefully it gets the point across). The following information is IN NO WAY SUFFICIENT to allow a diagnosis.

AXIS I

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia literally means a splitting of the mind, which is a fairly accurate description since the clinical disorder is a sort of split from reality. There are several types of Schizophrenia: Paranoid, Catatonic, Residual, Disorganized (Hebephrenic) and Undifferentiated. Symptoms can be positive - aspects that are there but that should not be, and negative - aspects that should be present but are not.

The main positive symptoms include delusions (irrational persistent beliefs in spite of evidence to the contrary) and hallucinations (perception in the absence of stimuli). Negative symptoms include flat affect (inability to express emotions), lack of personal hygiene, social and occupational dysfunction. There currently is no cure for Schizophrenia but antipsychotics and other drugs can help control the problems.

Depression & Bipolar Disorder

In Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) some of the recurrent signs are low and sad mood that lasts for over two weeks, loss of concentration, feelings of despair or helplessness, changes in weight and/or appetite, social withdrawal, loss of interest in activities previously enjoyed, lack of energy, and dark thoughts. The causes of MDD are often biological and even genetic (people who are homozygous - have two copies - of the short allele of gene 5-HTT are more vulnerable to develop the sickness even given the same stressors as heterozygotes).

The biological explanations stem from the findings that individuals with MDD have a lower production of the neurotransmitter serotonin (feelings of well-being regulator). Consequently, serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac have been successful, however antidepressants have also backfired in several, sometimes tragic, ways. Depression is almost twice as common in women than in men. Individuals suffering from manic depression (Bipolar Disorder) alternate between days of mania and months of depression. During manic episodes, individuals tend to become promiscuous, reckless, very talkative, elated and prone to overspending. The mood stabilizer lithium is often used to treat this condition.

Phobias may vary. Illustration by Elena.

Phobias OCD, GAD, AD(H)D

A writer with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) was portrayed by Jack Nicholson in the motion picture As Good as it Gets. The disorder is characterized by intrusive thoughts, repetitive rituals and unusual behavioral patterns. Phobias are irrational fears that endure despite the patient knowing that they are irrational. Examples include fear of spiders, Arachnophobia, and of public places, Agoraphobia. Agoraphobia can manifest with or without panic attacks. People with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) tend to worry exceedingly about potential difficulties, in addition to, everyday matters. The primary distinction between fear and anxiety, is that fear is of something confirmed while anxiety is not. GAD is often treated with anxiolitics as well as antidepressants. ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) and ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) are mainly found in children and adolescents.

The drug Ritalin has usually been prescribed, and has also been abused by students wishing to increase their intellectual performance, a dubious and dangerous practice. A lot of discussion was generated as to whether the disorder is or not over diagnosed.

AXIS II

Personality Disorders One of the reasons that personality disorders get their own axis is that there is no cure and that they are not diseases as the previous cases. They are considered to be, in a way, the extremes of the bell curve of personalities in the general population. The fact does not make them any easier for the incumbent or those around him or her. The most vicious is Antisocial Personality Disorder, also called psychopathy. The rest are Paranoid, Histrionic, Borderline, Obsessive-Compulsive, Anxious (Avoidant), Dependent, Passive-Aggressive, Schizoid, Narcissistic, Mixed and Unspecified Personality Disorders (PDs). Persons with Borderline PD tend to hurt themselves, psychopaths others. Narcissistic and Histrionic PDs are characterized by self-centeredness for the former and excessive need to be the center of attention for the latter; Schizoid PDs comprise the attributes of solitude and emotional withdrawal (to an excess).

Mental Retardation

Mental retardation is usually diagnosed before the age of 18, by severe learning disabilities and an IQ score below 70 points on a standardized test. The condition has many genetic, biological, traumatic and environmental causes. Autism and other developmental disorders would also be coded on Axis II, even in children of normal or high intelligence.

Conclusion

In an attempt to remain concise, the above list is incomplete. Categories such as NOS (Not Otherwise Specified), and descriptive parameters (comorbidity, prevalence, incidence, demographics) were omitted. Likewise, some disorders, such as Schizoaffective, Dysthymic, Conduct and Learning Disorders, have been left out. Moreover, an alternate diagnostic tool, the ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases, tenth version, published in 1990; in use until eleventh edition is endorsed in 2014) is beyond the scope of the present discussion.

Nothing can stop the man with the right mental attitude from achieving his goal; nothing on earth can help the man with the wrong mental attitude (Thomas Jefferson). Illustration : Megan Jorgensen.

Adrenaline and Cortisol

Adrenaline & Cortisol

The words adrenaline and epinephrine, as well as noradrenaline and norepinephrine are used interchangeably. Adrenaline reportedly has effects of giving people superhuman strength, speed and other abilities that allow them to react adequately under traumatic conditions. Underneath it all, it is adrenergic receptor activity that is sought after by adepts of extreme sports, bungee jumping and free styling.

Seifert et al. (2009) confirmed their hypothesis on cerebral metabolism, that at the brain level sugar is processed quicker due to adrenaline but not noradrenaline. Mitchell et al. (2009) examine noradrenaline spillover in the brain, and in their experiment trimethaphan injection acts as a lowering mechanism.

Cortisol is a neurohormone produced by the endocrine system. The exact fields that investigate such cases are neuropsychopharmacology and neuropsychoendocrinology. Cortisol and the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; also known as HTPA or LHPA where L - limbic) are related to stress. Cortisol has been studied in rats; rat pups were said to grow up with different abilities for cortisol secretion depending on the way they were reared (low licking and grooming versus high licking and grooming). The finding had epigenetic implications (Lord, 2009). Epigenetics refers to the possibility that the genetic code can be altered due to environmental pressures. In the popular media cortisol and stress have been blamed for weight gain. Cortisol acts by blocking an appetite-suppressing signaller, thus leading to higher calorie consumption and fat accumulation. Stress has been cited as responsible for many ills; it is plausible that worries predispose one to overeating. In contradistinction, oxytocin is a neuropeptidede that in humans and voles is partly responsible for socialization and couple formation, and occasionally lowers cortisol released during partners’ disputes (Ditzen, 2009).

Epinephrine is sometimes confused with ephedrine or ephedra (herb). Ephedrine is a component of some gym performance enhancers, commonly called ‘fat burners’. The substance had some trouble with the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) due to suspected safety concerns, leading to regulations. But that is not the topic here. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are neurotransmitters in the human central nervous system (CNS). Both are catecholamines synthesised from the amino acid tyrosine, acting both as neurotransmitters and stress hormones.

Septic shock, a condition characterized by generalized infection and the organism’s reactions to it, is regularly treated with administration of dopamine or norepinephrine rather than epinephrine. However there is no evidence that epinephrine alone rather than norepinephrine and dobutamine does the deed any differently (Agrawal, 2010). Vasopressin is also sometimes administered in such cases, but Russell et al. (2008) consider it largely ineffective as compared to norepinephrine. The all-or-none potential of neural cells or the body’s reactions to epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), cortisol, oxytocin, vasopressin, progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, dobutamine (synthetic drug), dopamine, serotonin and GABA represent typical topics of neuroscientific inquiry.

The adrenaline of a live performance is unlike anything in film or theater. I can see why it's so addictive. Gwyneth Paltrow. Photo : © Megan Jorgensen.