Neutron Star

Neutron Star

Neutron star matter weighs about the same as an ordinary mountain per teaspoonful – so much that if you had a piece of neutron star and let it go (hum… you could hardly do otherwise), it might pass effortlessly through the Earth like a falling stone through air, carving a hole for itself completely through our planet and emerging out the other side – perhaps in China.

If a peace of neutron star matter were dropped from nearby space, with the Earth rotating beneath it as it fell, it would plunge repeatedly through, punching hundreds of thousands of holes before friction with the interior of our planet stopped the motion.

Let’s imagine: people there might be out for a stroll, minding their own business, when a tiny lump of neutron star plummets out of the ground, hovers for a moment, and then returns beneath the Earth, providing at least a diversion from the routine of the day.

Before it comes to rest at the center of the Earth, the inside of our planet might look briefly like a Swiss cheese until the subterranean flow of rock and metal healed the wounds.

Large lumps of neutron star matter are unknown on Earth. But small lumps are everywhere. The awesome power of the neutron star is lurking in the nucleus of every atom, hidden in every teacup and dormouse, every breath of air, every apple pie. The neutron star teaches us respect for the commonplace.

A star like the Sun will end its days, as we know, as a red giant and then a white dwarf. A collapsing star twice as massive as the Sun will become a supernova and then a neutron star. But a massive star, left, after its supernova phase, with, say, five times the Sun’s mass, has an even more remarkable fate reserved for it – its gravity will turn it into a black hole.

Thermonuclear reactions in the solar interior support the outer layers of the Sun and postpone for billions of years a catastrophic gravitational collapse.

For white dwarfs, the pressure of the electrons, stripped from their nuclei, holds the star up. For neutron stars, the pressure of the neutrons staves off gravity. But for an elderly star left after supernova explosions and other impetuosities with more than several times the Sun’s mass, there are no forces known that can prevent collapse.

The star shrinks incredibly, spins, reddens and disappears. A massive star will shrink until it is the size of a city, the crushing gravity acts irrevocably, and the star slips through a self-generated crack in the space-time continuum and vanishes from our universe.

What if every neutron star is an intelligent being? Image : © Megan Jorgensen.

On the New Stars

On the New Stars

Johannes Kepler published in 1606 a book called De stele Nova, “On the New Star”, in which he wonders if a supernova is the result of some random concatenation of atoms in the heavens. He presents what he says is “… not my own opinion, but my wife’s: Yesterday, when weary with writing, I was called to supper, and a salad I had asked for was set before me. “It seems then, “I said, “if pewter dishes, leaves of lettuce, grains of salt, drops of water, vinegar, oil and slices of eggs had been flying about in the air for all eternity, it might at last happen by chance that there would come a salad”. “Yes”, responded my lovely, “but not so nice as this one of mine”.

No supernova explosions have been observed in Milky Way Galaxy since the invention of the telescope. But supernovae are routinely observed in other galaxies.

David Helfand and Knox Long in the December 6, 1979, issue of the British journal Nature say (and we quote): “On 5 March, 1979, an extremely intense burst of hard X-rays and gamma rays was recorded by the nine interplanetary spacecraft of the burst sensor network, and localized by time-of-flight determinations to a position coincident with the supernova remnant N49 in the Large Magellanic Cloud” (the Large Magellanic Cloud, so called because the first inhabitant of the Northern Hemisphere to notice it was Magellan, is a small satellite galaxy of the Milky Way, 180,000 light-years distant. There is also, as you might expect, a Small Magellanic Cloud).

However, in the same issue of Nature, E. P. Mazets and colleagues of the Ioffe Institute, Leningrad – who observed this source with the gamma-ray burst detector aboard the Venera 11 and 12 spacecraft on their way to land on Venus – argue that what is being seen is a flaring pulsar only a few hundred light-years away.

David Helfand and Knox Long do not insist that the gamma-ray outburst is associated with the supernova remnant. In fact, they charitably considered many alternatives, including the surprising possibility that the source lay within the solar system: Perhaps it is the exhaust of an alien star-ship on its long voyage home!

Anyway a rousing of the stellar fires in “supernova remnant N49” is fact, as simple as we are sure there are such things as supernovae.

I'm quite sure that all the supernovae are exhausts many alien star-ships on its long voyage home. Image: © Megan Jorgensen.

Infinity

Infinity

When we talk about infinity, we are talking about a quantity greater than any number, no matter how large.

Just try to stand between two mirrors and you’ll see a large number of images of yourself, each the reflection of another. Well, you cannot see an infinity of images because the mirrors are not perfectly aligned and they are not perfectly flat. Besides light does not travel infinitely fast, and you are in the way. But if all the conditions are in place, your cat would be a perfect expression of Infinity.

If you consider your cat down beyond a single atom, you confront an infinity of the Very Very Large. And these infinities represent an unending regress that goes on not just Very Very Far, but Forever.

So what about the lives of the stars? The same is true for them, as hydrogen fusion cannot continue forever: in any given star, there is only so much hydrogen fuel in its hot interior. The fate of a star, the end of its life cycle, depends very much on its initial mass.

Billions of years from now, there will be a last perfect day in our Universe. This evolution is inexorable. Eventually the stars will vanish, the life will die and catastrophe of the most immense proportions imaginable will overtake the universe. And no God will be able to save it from its fate.

I have a terrible need… shall I say the word?… of religion. Then I go out at night and paint the stars (Vincent van Gogh). Image: © Megan Jorgensen.

Zodiac

Zodiac

The zodiac is a band of twelve constellations seemingly wrapped around the sky in the apparent annual path of the Sun through the heavens.

The root of the word Zodiac is that for zoo, because the zodiacal constellations, like Hydra or Leo, are mainly fancied to be animals.

In fact, a million years from now, the constellation of Leo will look less like a lion than it does today and perhaps our remote descendants will call it the constellation of the radio telescope – although we can guess that a million years from now the radio telescope will have become more obsolete than the stone spear is now. Anyway, constellations were given the names of the signs and asterisms could be connected in a way that would resemble the sign's name.

Although the zodiac remains the basis of the ecliptic coordinate system in use in astronomy besides the equatorial one, the term and the names of the twelve signs are today mostly associated with horoscopic astrology.

The Zodiac constellations are known to have been in use by the Roman era based on concepts inherited by Hellenistic astronomy from Babylonian astronomy of the Chaldean period (mid-1st millennium BC). Besides the construction of the zodiac is described in Ptolemy's Almagest (2nd century AD).

Babylonian astronomers at some stage during the early 1st millennium BC divided the ecliptic into twelve equal zones of celestial longitude to create the first known celestial coordinate system: a coordinate system that boasts some advantages over modern systems (such as equatorial coordinate system). The Babylonian calendar assigned each month to a sign, beginning with the position of the Sun at vernal equinox, which, at the time, was depicted as the Aries constellation, for which reason the first sign is still called "Aries" even after the vernal equinox has moved away from the Aries constellation due to the slow precession of the Earth's axis of rotation.

Because the division was made into equal arcs, 30º each, they constituted an ideal system of reference for making predictions about a planet's longitude. However, Babylonian techniques of observational measurements were in a rudimentary stage of evolution and it was probably beyond their capacity to define in a precise way the boundary lines between the zodiacal signs in the sky.

The Babylonian star catalogs entered Greek astronomy in the 4th century BC, via Eudoxus of Cnidus and others, but horoscopic astrology first appeared in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Dendera zodiac, a relief dating to ca. 50 BC, is the first known depiction of the classical zodiac of twelve signs.

Planets as seen by Megan Jorgensen. Illustration by Megan Jorgensen.

Under the Greeks, and Ptolemy in particular, whose work Tetrabiblos laid the basis of the astrological traditions, the planets, Houses, and signs of the zodiac were rationalized and their function set down in a way that has changed little to the present day. Capricornus (Goat-horned - the Sea-Goat).

Curiously enough, the Hindu zodiac signs and corresponding Greek signs sound very different, being in Sanskrit and Greek respectively, but their symbols are nearly identical. For example, dhanu means "bow" and corresponds to Sagittarius, the "archer", and kumbha means "water-pitcher" and corresponds to Aquarius, the "water-carrier". The correspondence of signs is taken to suggest the possibility of early interchange of cultural influences. Pisces (the Fishes). 

It is important to distinguish the zodiacal signs from the constellations associated with them, not only because of their drifting apart due to the precession of equinoxes but also because the physical constellations by nature of their varying shapes and forms take up varying widths of the ecliptic. Thus, Virgo takes up fully five times as much ecliptic longitude as Scorpius. Scorpio (the Scorpion).

The zodiacal signs are an abstraction from the physical constellations designed to represent exactly one twelfth of the full circle each, or the longitude traversed by the Sun in about 30.4 days. Aquarius (the Water-Bearer).

Due to the constellation boundaries being redefined in 1930 by the International Astronomical Union, the path of the ecliptic now officially passes through thirteen constellations: the twelve traditional zodiac constellations plus Ophiuchus, the bottom part of which interjects between Scorpio and Sagittarius. Ophiuchus is an anciently recognized constellation, catalogued along with many others in Ptolemy's Almagest, but not historically referred to as a zodiac constellation.

The star. Illustration par Megan Jorgensen.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia

Read this text to learn more about causes of schizophrenia, signs to watch for, treatment available.

What is schizophrenia? 

Schizophrenia is a mental illness that affects about 1 in every 100 persons.

People with schizophrenia sometimes do not know the difference between what is real and what is not real.

For example, they may hear “voices” of people who are not real. This may leave them mixed-up, upset and afraid. They sometimes say and do things that appear unusual or do not make sense to other people.

Severe types of this illness can cause problems at home, school, work or in a person’s social life.

What causes schizophrenia?

There is no one reason why someone develops schizophrenia, but researchers are studying its causes.

• Scientists believe that abnormal brain chemistry is responsible.
• It may be a partly inherited illness.
• Stress can play a role in making the symptoms worse.
• Signs and symptoms:

Not everyone with schizophrenia has the same symptoms. Symptoms are usually first seen in teens and young adults.

Delusions:

Delusions are false personal beliefs that can be quite strange to others and are very hard to change.

For example, some people with schizophrenia may believe that others are trying to hurt them, or that he or she is famous or has special powers.

Hallucinations:

Hallucinations are experiences that are not really true.  Hallucinations can be experienced as images, sounds, feelings, tastes or smells.

Hearing voices is the most common hallucination in schizophrenia. These “voices” may talk to each other, warn of dangers, or even tell the person to do something.

Thinking, speaking or behaving in a disorganized way:

Schizophrenia can make things difficult. People with schizophrenia may not be able to concentrate on one thought for very long and may be unable to focus their attention. The way they speak or may appear strange or disorganized as well.

Negative symptoms

A person with schizophrenia may not show a lot of emotion. The person may not want to be around others, may have very little to say or may not be interested in doing things. These symptoms are often the hardest part of the illness for families and friends to understand. Sometimes people misunderstand these symptoms as laziness, but they are really one of the most difficult parts of the illness to treat.

What are the treatments?

Medication: Currently, medications are available which often reduce or eliminate the symptoms of schizophrenia. But the symptoms very usually keep coming back without medication and ongoing treatment is needed.

Sometimes the doctor may need to change the treatment plan to manage the illness effectively. For example, the doctor may change the type or dose of medication. Sometimes people can get depressed or even suicidal because of their symptoms.

Other supports that can be helpful:

• Family, friends and self-help groups;
• Close follow-up with a professional;
• Coping and problem-solving skills education;
• Job training.

 Dr. Bell, I presume, has already told you that Ruy has lost the ability to read and write. Ordinarily that's indicative of advanced dementia praecox, isn't it? However, I think Mr. Jacques' case presents a more complicated picture, and my own guess is schizophrenia rather than dementia. The dominant and most  frequently observed psyche is a megalomanic phase, during which he tends to harangue his listeners on various odd subjects.

We've picked up some of these speeches on a hidden recorder and made a Aipg analysis of the word-frequencies. 

A Zipf count is pretty mechanical. But scientific, undeniable scientific.... Back in the forties, Zipf of Harvard proved that in a representative sample of English, the interval separating the repetition of the same word was inversely proportional to its frequency. He provided a mathematical formula for something previously known only qualitatively: that a too-soon repetition of the same or similar sound id distracting and grating to the cultured mind. If we must say the same thing in the next paragraph, we avoid repetition with an appropriate synonym. But not the schizophrenic. His disease disrupts his higher centers of association, and certain discriminating neural networks are no longer available for his writing and speech. He has no compunction against immediate and continuous tonal repetition.

Just listen: “Behold, Willie, through yonder window the symbol of your mistress's defeat: The Rose! The rose, my dear Willie, grows not in murky air. The smoky metropolis of yester-year drove it to the country. But now, with the unsullied skyline of your atomic age, the red rose returns. How mysterious, Willie, that the rose continues to offer herself to us dull, plodding humans. We see nothing in her but a pretty flower. Her regretful thorns forever declare our inept clumsiness, and her lack of honey chides our gross sensuality. Ah, Willie, let us become as birds! For only the winged can eat the fruit of the rose and spread her pollen...

Did you keep count? The author used the word “rose” no less than five times, when once or twice was sufficient. He certainly had no lack of mellifluous synonyms at his disposal, such as “red flower”, “thorned plant”, and so on. And instead of saying “the red rose returns” he should have said something like “it comes back.”

(And lose the triple alliteration. We can re-examine that diagnosis very critically. Everyone who talks like a poet isn't necessarily insane.)

(The Rose. Charles L. Harness)

Severe types of this illness can cause problems at home, school, work or in a person’s social life. Illustration: © Megan Jorgensen.