Mind and Brain

Mind and Brain – How Do They Relate?

One of the main points is that the brain is simply a bodily organ, like the stomach, the liver, or the lungs. It is tissue, made of cells. These cells do have some special properties, but they are of roughly the same type and employ roughly the same sort of metabolic and other processes as other cells in the body. And yet the brain has a special, mysterious property that distinguishes it from all other organs. It is the seat of the mind, somehow producing our feeling of being ourselves in the world right now. Trying to understand how this happens – how matter becomes mind – is the mind-body problem.

The mind-body problem is a philosophical conundrum that dates back to classical antiquity, and probably beyond. What has changed in recent years is the emergence of a comprehensive scientific effort to solve this ancient problem. This effort, which involves neuroscientists, psychologists, and even philosophers, takes the form of a multidisciplinary enterprise called cognitive science.

The advent of science to the problem has changed it slightly. In that the mind-body problem is now commonly described as the problem of “consciousness.” In other words, the problem, “how does the mind emerge from the brain”, had become, “how does consciousness emerge from the brain.” Although psychonalytically minded readers need to reminding that mental life is not synonymous with consciousness, we will not address this particular twist to the problem. Let us assume that the two ways of putting the problem are synonymous.

Investigating consciousness has become the second career of Francis Crick, the Nobel Prize-winning biologist famous for being the codiscoverer (in the 1950s) of the double-helix structure of DNA. In his book, entitled The Astonishing Hypothesis, he writes:

“The astonishing hypothesis is that you, your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personal identity and free will are, in fact, no more than the behaviour of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules (Crick, 1994, p.3).

The hypothesis seems self-evidently true, and yet it is something that many people do not find easy to accept. How can all this – all that comprises you – be reduced to the activity of a group of cells? The subtitle of Crick's book is The Scientific Search for the Soul. This (perhaps overstated) phrase captures something of the magnitude of the problem. The individual cells of the brain are not uniquely “mental”, yet when they are connected up together, each one contributes something to something else that somehow becomes the mind.

Cognitive science is an unfortunate term in that it implies an exclusion of noncognitive mental functions such as emotion and motivation. Illustration by Elena.

Space Tourism

A Reality of Space Tourism

Space is truly the final frontier for mankind. As future space tourists, we should keep our eyes on the fast-developing space industry, as it will shape our civilization for decades to come.

Imagine yourself heading out with your family on your annual vacation. Except, this time you aren’t going to a harbour for a Caribbean cruise or to an airport for a Chilean skiing tour. Instead you thrill to the idea that in a couple of hours you’ll be in a spaceport, waiting in line to take your places in a spaceship for this much-anticipated trip to the Moon. This scenario is a likely picture of what might be encountered in the next few decades.

This isn’t to say that space tourism isn’t available now; in fact, Russia has previously allowed some space tourists to travel alongside their cosmonauts to the International Space Station (ISS) for anywhere between 20 and 40 million US dollars (an insignificant sum for some of us, the Earthlings).

The goal, however, for the burgeoning space tourism sector is to make these trips more affordable for the average citizen and to provide infrastructure needed to make spaceflights possible. Today, most of the spacecraft can no longer be used after completing their mission and are discarded, which can prove to be extremely costly. Thus, companies wishing to invest in space tourism are currently researching methods of reusable space transportation.

SpaceX, for instance, has a prototype spaceship called Dragon that can transport up to 7 crew members. It is currently working with NASA to find a way to transport people headed to the orbit to work there, but it also hopes to provide commercial spaceflights to ordinary citizens.

Reaction Engines Ltd has proposed a “space-plane” named SKYLON that produces thrust by burning liquid hydrogen fuel with the oxygen from the air, significantly reducing the amount of liquid oxygen needed on board the ship to burn the fuel. Its SABRE engines will accelerate the ship to Mach 5 – that’s 6125 km/hour up until 25 kilometers above sea level, at which point the engines will switch to rocket mode and carry it the rest of the way to space.

The design received endorsement from the European Space Agency (ESA) in November 2012, and they were looking for funding to build there SABRE engines.

Another well-known company, Virgin Galactics, already had more than 500 ticket holders in 2014 waiting to catch a ride on board SpaceShipTwo, a spaceship that can hold two crew members and six passengers. The Virgin Galactics plans for this spacecraft to be the first ship that sends  tourists to space on a regular basis. The ticket price is currently reported to be $200,000 with a $20,000 down payment, a price much more lower that what the Russians charge. One of the first few planned trips are supposed to take passengers 110 kilometers above sea level marking the beginning of open space, for a total weightlessness duration of 6 minutes.

It is important to keep in mind that these ships will need dedicated ports to house them and to accommodate them for takeoff and landing. Several of these have already been open, like Spaceport America in New Mexico, open for business since 2011 and a few others are being built.

In addition to transportation, future space travelers will need tourist destinations to visit and accommodations to live in for the duration of their journey. A couple of companies are looking into providing housing for these individuals during their stay before the takeoff.

Bigelow Aerospace Company plans to send housing modules into space alongside spacecraft. These modules are compact rooms that can inflate upon command to form livable areas that are shielded from the radiation of the Sun. Theoretically Bigelow Aerospace could build an entire hotel room by room just by interconnecting these modules, effectively creating new destinations in space for tourists. One of these modules is destined to connect to the International Space Station in 2015 or later, providing Bigelow Aerospace with a chance to demonstrate their concept.

Space Island Group, another contender in the space tourism business, intends to build ring-like structures that can spin at variable speeds to create an artificial gravity that is equal to a third of the gravity of Earth. This could be highly beneficial, as it may potentially eliminate many of the negative effects that come from prolonged exposure to low-gravity environments, such as muscle atrophy or loss of bone density.

Naturally, all these accommodations will need to regularly stock oxygen, food, water and other supplies for the guests. While some of these necessities could be grown or recycled on the stations themselves, most supplies would still need to be sent directly from Earth. One candidate for these missions is SpaceX’s Falcon 9, which is capable of carrying a total of 10T of cargo, more than enough to resupply future space hotels. As a matter of fact, in 2008 already NASA employed Falcon 9 to send supplies to the International Space Station, thus illustrating its potential as a reliable cargo carrier.

Safety will be one of the main factors that will make or break the future of space tourism. Before governments can allow their citizens to leave the planet, companies must prove that their shuttles and living quarters will protect their customers throughout their journey.

The US government has already begun to draft some guidelines to ensure safety of their citizens who wish to travel to space. In 2004, the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act, H.R. 5382, was signed into law. It provides rules and regulations that space companies must follow to legally send people to space, such as getting a license from the Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST).

… After all, we might soon find ourselves staring at a tiny blue dot outside our windows and reminiscing of a time when this was all but an impossible dream…

Sources:

• Roupen Djinbachian, Space Tourism close to becoming a reality Technophilic, Winter 2013, page 22).
• Space Tourist Back From “Paradise”, Lands on Steppes”, by Patrick E. Tyler.
• Elysium, movie 2013.
• Clark, Stephen (September 2010), “Boeing allies with Space Adventures for tourist flights”.
• “Anywhere on Earth in four hours? Top-secret Skylon space plane could replace jets and rockets, company claims”. National Post, 29 November 2012.
• “Branson Dedicates Space Terminal”, Wall Street Journal, 18 October 2011.
• “International space station to receive inflatable module”, Washington Post, 16 January 2013.
• “Private-spaceflight bill signed into law”, NBC News, 23 December 2004.

What will we discover in Outer Space, is nothing compared with our beloved planet (Quotations from Megan Jorgensen). Image : © Megan Jorgensen.

Dreams in Psychology

Dreams in Psychology

Why are dreams so important in analysis. Patients are often haunted by recurring dreams of their traumas and awaken in terror. As long as they remain ill, these dreams don't change their basic structure. The neural network that represents the trauma – such as Mr. L's dream that he was missing something – is persistently reactivated, without being retranscribed. Should these traumatized patients get better, these nightmares gradually become less frightening, until ultimately the patient dreams something like At first I think the trauma is recurring, but it isn't; it's over now, I've survived . This kind of progressive dream series shows the mind and brain slowly changing, as the patient learns that he is safe now. For this to happen, neural networks must unlearn certain associations – as Mr. L. unlearned his association between separation and death – and change existing synaptic connections to make way for new learning.

What physical evidence exists that dreams show our brains in the process of plastic change, altering hitherto buried, emotionally meaningful memories, as in Mr. L.'s case?

The newest brain scans show that when we dream, that part of the brain that processes emotion, and our sexual, survival, and aggressive instincts, is quite active. At the same time the prefrontal cortex system, which is responsible for inhibiting our emotions and instincts, shows lower activity. With instincts turned up and inhibitions turned down, the dreaming brain can reveal impulses that are normally blocked from awareness.

Scores of studies show that sleep affects plastic change by allowing us to consolidate learning and memory. When we learn a skill during the day, we will be better at it the next day if we have a good night's sleep. “Sleeping on a problem” often does make sense.

A team led by Marcos Frank has also shown that sleep enhances neuroplasticity during the critical period when most plastic change takes place. Huben and Wiesel blocked one eye of a kitten in the critical period and showed that the brain map for the blocked eye was taken over by the good eye – a case of use it or lose it. Frank's team did the same experiment with two groups of kittens, one group that it deprived of sleep, and another group that got a full amount of it. They found that the more sleep the kittens got, the greater the plastic change in their brain map.

Scientists blocked one eye of a kitten and showed that the brain map for the blocked eye was taken over by the good eye. Photo by Elena.

The dream state also facilitates plastic change. Sleep is divided into two stages, and most of our dreaming occurs during one of them, called rapid-eye-movement sleep, or REM sleep. Infants spend many more hours in REM sleep than adults, and it is during infancy that neuroplastic change occurs most rapidly. In fact, REM sleep is required for the plastic development of the brain infancy. A team led by Dr. Gerald Marks did a study similar to Frank's that looked at the effects of REM sleep on kittens and on their brain structure. Marks found that in kittens deprived of REM sleep, the neurons in their visual cortex were actually smaller, so REM sleep seems necessary for neurons to grow normally. REM sleep has also been shown to be particularly important for enhancing our ability to retain emotional memories and for allowing the hippocampus to turn short-term memories of the day before into long-term ones (i.e., it helps make memories more permanent, leading to structural change in the brain).

Each day, in analysis, Mr. L, worked on his core conflicts, memories, and traumas, and at night there was dream evidence not only of his buried emotions but of his brain reinforcing the learning and unlearning he had done.

We understand why Mr. L. at the outset of his analysis, had no conscious memories of the first four years of his life: most of his memories of the period were unconscious procedural memories – automatic sequences of emotional interactions – and the few explicit memories he had were so painful, they were repressed. In treatment he gained access to both procedural and explicit memories from his first four years. But why was he unable to recall his adolescent memories? One possibility is that he repressed some of his adolescence; often when we repress one thing, such as a catastrophic early loss, we repress other events loosely associated with it, to block access to the original.

But there is another possible cause. It has recently been discovered that early childhood trauma causes massive plastic change in the hippocampus, shrinking it so that new, long-term explicit memories cannot form. Animals removed from their mothers let out desperate cries, then enter a turned-off state – as Spitz's infants did – and release a stress hormone called “glucocorticoid.” Glucocorticoids kill cells in the hippocampus so that it cannot make the synaptic connections in neural networks that make learning and explicit long-term memory possible. These early stresses predispose these motherless animals to stress-related illness for the rest of their lives. When they undergo long separations, the gene to initiate production of glucocorticoids gets turned on and stays on for extended periods. Trauma in infancy appears to lead to a supersensitization – a plastic alteration – of the brain neurons that regulate glucocorticoids. Recent research in humans shows that adult survivors or childhood abuse also show signs of glucocorticoid supersensitivity lasting into adulthood.

That the hippocampus shrinks is an important discovery. Depression, high stress, childhood trauma all release glucocorticoids and kill cells in the hippocampus, leading to memory loss. The longer people are depressed, the smaller their hippocampus gets. The hippocampus of depressed adults who suffered prepubertal childhood trauma is 18 percent smaller than that of depressed adults withous childhood trauma – a downside of the plastic brain : we literally lose essential cortical real estate in response to illness.

If the stress is brief, this decrease in size is temporary. If it is too prolonged, the damage is permanent. As people recover from depression, their memories return, and research suggests their hippocampi can grow back. In fact, the hippocampus is one of two areas where new neurons are created from our own stem cells as part of normal functioning.

Antidepressant medications increase the number of stem cells that become new neurons in the hippocampus. Rats given Prozac for three weeks had a 70 percent increase in the number of cells in their hippocampi. It usually takes three to six weeks for antidepressants to work in humans – perhaps coincidentally, the same amount of time it takes for newly born neurons in the hippocampus to mature, extend their projections, and connect with other neurons. So we may, without knowing it, have been helping people get out of depression by using medications that foester brain plasticity. Since people who improve in psychotherapy also find that their memories improve, it may be that it also stimulates neural growth in their hippocampi.

(Turning Our Ghosts into Ancestors. The Brain That Changes Itself by Norman Doidge, M.D., excerpt).

We are often haunted by important relationships from the past that influence us unconsciously in the present. Photo by Elena.

Human History

Human History

Human history can be viewed as a slowly dawning awareness that we are members of a larger group. Initially our loyalties were to ourselves and our immediate family, next, to bands of wandering hunter-gatherers, then to tribes, small settlements, city-states, nations. We have broadened the circle of those we love. We have now organized what are modestly described as superpowers, which include groups of people from divergent ethnic and cultural background working in some sense together – surely a humanizing and character-building experience.

If we are to survive, our loyalties must be broadened further, to include the whole human community, the entire planet Earth. Many of those who run the nations will find this idea unpleasant. They will fear the loss of power. We will hear much about treason and disloyalty. Rich nations will have to share their wealth with poor ones. But the choice, as H. G. Wells once said in a different context, is clearly the universe or nothing.

A reasonable – even an ambitious – program of unmanned exploration of the planets is inexpensive. The budget for space sciences is not very expensive. Comparable expenditures in many countries are more or less the same. Together these sums represent the equivalent of two or three nuclear submarines per decade, or the cost overruns on one of the many weapon systems in a single year. In the last quarter of 1979, the program cost of the U.S. F/A-18 aircraft increased by $5,1 billion, and the F-16 by $3,4 billion. Since their inceptions, significantly less has been spent on the unmanned planetary programs of both the United States and the Soviet Union than has been wasted shamefully – for example, between 1970 and 1975, in the U.S. bombing of Cambodia, an application of national policy that cost $7 billion. The total cost of a mission such as Viking to Mars, or Voyager to the outer solar system, is less than that of the 1979-80 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Through technical employment and the stimulation of high technology, money spent on space exploration has an economic multiplier effect. One study suggests that for every dollar spent on the planets, seven dollars are returned to the national economy. And yet there are many important and entirely feasible missions that have not been attempted because of lack of funds – including roving vehicles to wander across the surface of Mars, a comet rendezvous, Titan entry probes and a full-scale research for radio signals from other civilizations in space.

Carl Sagan, Cosmos.

Even an ambitious program of unmanned space exploration in inexpensive. Image: Space Travel by © Megan Jorgensen.

X Ray Tech Salary

X Ray Tech Salary

Any society with a marked population explosion will be forced to devote all its energies and technological skills to feeding and caring for the population on its home planet. Technicians will be busy and tech salaries will go up. On any planet, no matter what its biology or social system, an exponential increase in population will swallow every resource.

We can predict thus that no civilization can possibly survive to an interstellar spacefaring phase unless it limits its numbers.

Of course, this is a very powerful conclusion and is in no way based on the idiosyncrasies of a particular civilization.

Conversely any civilization that engages in serious interstellar exploration and colonization must have exercised zero population growth or something very close to it for many generations.

The famous astronomer Carl Sagan and his colleague William Newman have calculated that if a million years ago a spacefaring civilization with a low population growth rate emerged two hundred light-years away and spread outward, colonizing suitable worlds along the way, their survey starships would be entering our solar system only about now.

But a million years is a very long period of time. If the nearest civilization is younger than this, they would not have reached us yet. A sphere two hundred light-years in radius contains 200,000 suns and perhaps a comparable number of worlds suitable for colonization. It is only after 200,000 other worlds have been colonized that, in the usual course of things, our solar system would be accidentally discovered to harbor indigenous civilization.

What does it mean for a civilization to be a million years old? We have had X rays, radio telescopes and spaceships for a few decades; our technical civilization is young, scientific ideas of a modern cast a few thousand, civilization in general a few tens of thousands of years; human beings evolved on this planet only a few million years ago. At anything like our present rate of technical progress, an advanced civilization millions of years old is as much beyond us as we are beyond a bush baby a macaque.

Will a civilization with a low population growth reach some lush Eden? Illustration by Elena.